WAEC SSCE - Animal Husbandry - 2020

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The most vital practice during the introduction of a farm animal is quarantine. Quarantine involves isolating new animals from the existing ones on the farm for a period of time to monitor their health and ensure that they do not bring any diseases or parasites onto the farm. Introducing a new animal without proper quarantine can pose a significant risk to the health of the other animals on the farm. This is because the new animal could be carrying diseases, parasites or other harmful microorganisms that could infect the existing animals. By quarantining new animals, farmers can observe them for signs of illness and treat them appropriately before they are allowed to mix with the rest of the herd or flock. While other practices such as medication, sanitation, and vaccination are also important for maintaining the health of farm animals, quarantine is the most vital during the introduction of a new animal.

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The part of the animal labelled "Il" is called the loin. The loin is the section of the animal's back that is located between the ribcage and the pelvis. It is a very tender and flavorful part of the animal and is commonly used in a variety of culinary dishes. When you hear the term "loin" used in relation to meat, it usually refers to the section of meat that comes from the animal's back, which is where "Il" is typically located on a diagram or cut of meat.

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The nutritional disorder in cattle characterized by a distended stomach is called "bloat". Bloat occurs when gas builds up in the cow's stomach and cannot be released due to a blockage in the digestive system. The build-up of gas can cause the cow's stomach to become distended and can lead to serious health problems or even death if not treated promptly. Bloat can be caused by a variety of factors, including a diet high in legumes or other gas-producing foods, lack of roughage in the diet, or a blockage in the digestive system. To prevent bloat, it is important to provide cattle with a balanced diet that includes adequate roughage and to monitor them closely for signs of digestive problems.

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The ability of forage crops to survive and spread is referred to as "persistence". Persistence refers to the ability of a forage crop to remain alive and productive in a specific environment over time, despite challenges such as pests, disease, drought, or other stressors. A persistent forage crop can survive and thrive in the face of these challenges, allowing it to spread and establish itself more widely. In short, persistence is important for forage crops because it ensures their survival and allows them to continue providing food and other benefits to animals and humans over an extended period of time.

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Out of the four animals listed, only a "Kid" could be fed with a weaning ration. A weaning ration is a type of feed specifically formulated for young animals that are being transitioned from milk to solid food. This is usually done when the animal is around 3-4 weeks old. The weaning ration is designed to be easily digestible and to provide the right balance of nutrients for the animal's growth and development. Of the four animals listed, a "Kid" is the term used for a young goat. Goats are typically weaned at around 3-4 weeks of age, and during this time, they can be fed a weaning ration to help them transition to solid food. "Bull" is a term used for a mature male bovine, typically a cow or ox that has been castrated. Bulls are not typically fed a weaning ration since they are not in the weaning stage of their development. "Doe" is a term used for a female deer or antelope, and "Pullet" is a term used for a young female chicken. Neither of these animals would typically be fed a weaning ration since they are not being transitioned from milk to solid food at this stage of their development.

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To encourage regrowth of pasture species, a farmer should carry out controlled burning. This involves burning a small area of the pastureland, which helps to remove dead plant material and promote the growth of new shoots. Burning also helps to control invasive species that may be competing with desirable pasture species for nutrients and sunlight. However, it is important to note that controlled burning should only be carried out under appropriate conditions and with proper safety precautions in place to prevent the fire from spreading and causing harm to people or property.

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Chronic Respiratory Disease (CRD) is a common problem in poultry, particularly chickens. It is a persistent infection of the respiratory system caused by a combination of bacteria and viruses, including Mycoplasma gallisepticum and infectious bronchitis virus. CRD can cause symptoms such as coughing, sneezing, nasal discharge, and reduced growth in infected birds. The disease is highly contagious and spreads easily between birds, making control and prevention a challenge. Good biosecurity practices, such as proper sanitation, isolation of sick birds, and vaccination, can help reduce the spread and impact of CRD in poultry flocks.

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All of the factors listed are important considerations in feed formulation for farm animals, and it's difficult to say which one is least considered because they all play a significant role. However, if we had to choose, breed of animal might be considered the least important. The purpose of keeping the animal is important because different animals are raised for different reasons such as meat, milk, eggs, wool, or as a pet. The health status of the animal is important because it affects the animal's ability to digest and absorb nutrients from its feed. Age of the animal is also a crucial factor because their nutritional requirements change as they grow and develop. On the other hand, breed of animal is important but it may have less influence on feed formulation because animals within the same breed tend to have similar nutritional requirements. However, there may be some variations within a breed, and some breeds may be more susceptible to certain health conditions that could affect their nutritional needs. Overall, all of the factors listed should be considered when formulating feed for farm animals to ensure they receive the right balance of nutrients to support their health and productivity.

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The selection of an animal from a group based on its performance is called "individual selection." It involves evaluating and choosing animals based on their own performance, rather than their pedigree or the performance of their family members. Individual selection is commonly used in animal breeding programs to improve specific traits such as growth rate, milk production, or disease resistance. By selecting animals with the best performance for these traits, breeders can improve the overall quality of the herd or flock over time. For example, in a dairy farm, individual selection may involve selecting cows that produce the most milk or have the best udder conformation. These cows are then bred to produce offspring with similar traits, leading to a more productive and efficient herd.

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Slaughtering is a technique used in processing farm animals. It refers to the process of killing animals for food production. The process typically involves stunning the animal to render it unconscious, followed by bleeding out and then processing the carcass into meat products. Slaughtering is an essential step in the production of meat for human consumption, and it is typically performed under strict regulatory guidelines to ensure the humane treatment of animals and the safety of the meat products.

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Docking is the process of removing an animal's tail. This is a surgical procedure that involves cutting off part or all of the tail, typically done for cosmetic or practical reasons. In some breeds of dogs, for example, docking is performed to give them a specific appearance, while in others it may be done to prevent injury to the tail while working. It is important to note that docking is a controversial practice and is considered by some to be unethical and inhumane.

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Fresh forage cut and served to farm animals in their shed is referred to as soilage. Soilage is a type of animal feed made from freshly cut forage that is typically served to farm animals in their shed or barn. The forage can include various plants, such as grasses, legumes, and herbs, and is usually cut and brought in daily. Soilage is a particularly useful feed during the winter months when pasture grasses are not available or during periods of drought when grass growth is limited. The fresh forage provides a source of essential nutrients, such as protein, vitamins, and minerals, and can help maintain the health and productivity of the animals. In contrast to silage, which is a fermented feed made from chopped forage that is stored in airtight conditions, soilage is not fermented and is fed to the animals immediately after being cut. This makes it a quick and convenient feed option for farmers who need to provide their animals with fresh forage on a daily basis.

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The botanical name of Guinea grass is Panicum maximum. Guinea grass is a type of warm-season grass that is commonly used for forage, hay, and pasture in many tropical and subtropical regions. It is a fast-growing, highly productive grass that is well-suited to humid environments. Guinea grass is prized for its high nutritional value, palatability, and resistance to drought and heat. It is an important forage crop for livestock, especially for cattle, and can also be used for erosion control and soil stabilization.

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If a sick bird is identified in a flock, the first thing a farmer should do is to isolate the bird from the rest of the flock. This is important because some illnesses in birds can spread quickly from one bird to another through close contact, shared feeders and drinkers, or contaminated litter. By isolating the sick bird, the farmer can prevent the spread of disease and protect the health of the rest of the flock. Once the sick bird has been isolated, the farmer should observe it closely and look for any signs of illness such as lethargy, loss of appetite, respiratory distress, or abnormal feces. If the bird's condition does not improve within a day or two, or if other birds in the flock start showing signs of illness, the farmer should call a veterinary personnel for professional advice and treatment. Although changing the litter and cleaning the drinkers and feeders are important routine management practices to maintain the health of the flock, they should not be done as the first response to a sick bird. Isolating the sick bird should be the first step to prevent the spread of disease.

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The process by which an animal re-ingests its soft faeces to recover unused nutrients is called "coprophagy". Coprophagy is a common behavior seen in many animals, especially herbivores such as rabbits, rodents, and some species of birds. These animals have a unique digestive system that allows them to extract the maximum amount of nutrients from their food. However, not all nutrients can be digested on the first pass through the gut. This is where coprophagy comes in. The animals produce two types of feces: hard feces and soft feces. The hard feces are excreted as waste, while the soft feces are re-ingested. The soft feces contain a high concentration of nutrients that the animal could not digest the first time around. By re-ingesting the soft feces, the animal is able to extract more nutrients from its food and maximize its nutritional intake. In summary, coprophagy is an important adaptation that allows some animals to maximize their nutritional intake by re-ingesting their soft feces to recover unused nutrients.

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Forage crops can be ploughed in the soil to serve as green manure. Green manure refers to the practice of using fresh, growing plants that are ploughed into the soil to improve soil fertility and structure. When forage crops are ploughed into the soil, they decompose and release nutrients back into the soil, adding organic matter to the soil, which helps to improve soil structure, water holding capacity, and nutrient availability to plants. The forage crops also act as a cover crop, protecting the soil from erosion and reducing weed growth. Green manure is a sustainable and natural way to maintain soil fertility and health, and it is widely used in organic farming.

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The digestive system shown in the diagram belongs to a rabbit. Rabbits have a unique digestive system that allows them to extract nutrients from tough plant material. Like other herbivores, they have a complex digestive system that includes a specialized compartment called the cecum, which ferments fibrous material and breaks down cellulose. In the diagram, you can see the cecum, which is labeled "E." The cecum is a sac-like structure located at the beginning of the large intestine. It contains bacteria and other microorganisms that help break down tough plant fibers and extract nutrients from them. After food is eaten, it enters the rabbit's mouth and is partially chewed before being swallowed. It then enters the stomach, where it is mixed with digestive juices and broken down further. From there, it passes into the small intestine, where nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream. Finally, the waste material passes into the large intestine, where water is absorbed and feces are formed. The feces are then excreted, but some of them are also re-ingested by the rabbit to allow for further digestion in the cecum. Overall, the rabbit's digestive system is specialized to allow it to extract as much nutrition as possible from the tough plant material that makes up its diet.

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Mating is the process that is not involved in artificial insemination. Artificial insemination is a process of introducing sperm from a male animal into a female's reproductive tract using methods other than natural mating. In natural mating, the male and female animals engage in sexual intercourse, but in artificial insemination, the process is carried out with human intervention. During artificial insemination, the male animal is usually stimulated to ejaculate to collect the sperm. The sperm is then processed to ensure its quality before being introduced into the female animal's reproductive tract. Ovulation, the process of releasing an egg from the female's ovary, is an essential part of the process as it determines the timing of insemination. Teasing is also an essential part of the process, where the female is observed for signs of heat or estrus, indicating she is receptive to insemination. This helps to ensure the timing of insemination is optimal. Mating is not involved in artificial insemination because the process involves introducing sperm into the female's reproductive tract without natural mating. Instead, the sperm is introduced using a catheter, syringe or other devices, making it an assisted reproductive technology.

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A symptom of fowl pox disease is the appearance of galls on the comb of infected birds. Fowl pox is a viral disease that affects chickens and other poultry species. The virus is spread through bites from infected mosquitoes, or by direct contact with infected birds. One of the most distinctive symptoms of fowl pox is the appearance of galls on the comb, which are raised, wart-like growths. These galls can be white, yellow, or grey in color and can become quite large, covering much of the comb. Infected birds may also show other symptoms, such as a drop in egg production, a decrease in feed intake, and a drop in weight. However, the appearance of galls on the comb is often the most noticeable and easily recognized symptom of fowl pox. In summary, the appearance of galls on the comb is a symptom of fowl pox disease in chickens and other poultry species.

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The most effective way for a poultry farmer to reduce the problem of cannibalism and egg sucking among their flock is by carrying out "debeaking". Debeaking, also known as beak trimming, is a common practice in which the tip of the beak of a chicken is removed with a hot blade or infrared beam. This is done to reduce the damage caused by pecking, which can lead to cannibalism and egg sucking. When birds are kept in overcrowded or stressful conditions, they may peck at each other out of frustration or boredom, which can result in injuries or even death. Debeaking can help to reduce the severity of these injuries and prevent cannibalism from spreading throughout the flock. It is important to note that debeaking should only be carried out by trained professionals and with proper equipment to minimize pain and discomfort for the birds. Additionally, it is important to provide adequate space, ventilation, and enrichment to reduce stress and prevent the development of negative behaviors like cannibalism.

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Vitamin B is a water-soluble vitamin. Water-soluble vitamins are those that dissolve in water and are easily absorbed into the bloodstream during digestion. They are not stored in the body to any significant extent, and any excess amounts are excreted in the urine. This means that water-soluble vitamins need to be consumed regularly in the diet to avoid deficiency. Vitamin B is actually a complex of eight different B vitamins, all of which are water-soluble. Some of the important functions of the B vitamins include helping to convert food into energy, supporting healthy skin and hair, and aiding in the formation of red blood cells.

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The identification method carried out on the part labelled Il is called ear notching. Ear notching is a method used to identify and keep track of animals, especially livestock. It involves cutting a small, distinctive shape out of the ear of an animal. This shape can be used to identify the animal and track its movements and history, making it easier to manage a herd or flock. The notches are usually made with a special tool and are permanent, so they can be used to identify the animal even if it changes hands or is lost and later found.

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The gestation period refers to the time it takes for an animal to carry and develop its unborn offspring inside its womb before giving birth. Among the options given, the gestation period varies, and it depends on the animal species. For instance, 32 days may be a gestation period for some small rodents, such as mice or hamsters. 114 days could be the gestation period for some dog breeds, such as the German Shepherd or the Golden Retriever. 150 days could be the gestation period for some cows or sheep. And finally, 282 days could be the gestation period for a human being, as the average pregnancy lasts around nine months. Therefore, the gestation period of an animal varies according to its species, and the options given represent different gestation periods of different animals.

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Cellulose is broken down in the rumen mainly with the help of bacteria. The rumen is a specialized chamber in the digestive tract of ruminant animals, such as cows, sheep, and goats, where food is fermented and partially digested before it moves on to the rest of the digestive system. Cellulose, which is the primary component of plant cell walls, is a complex carbohydrate that is difficult for animals to digest without assistance. Bacteria in the rumen are able to break down cellulose through a process called cellulolysis. These bacteria produce enzymes, known as cellulases, that can break the bonds between the glucose molecules in cellulose, releasing the individual sugar molecules that can be absorbed and used as an energy source by the animal. Other microorganisms, such as fungi and protozoa, are also present in the rumen and can contribute to the breakdown of cellulose, but it is the bacteria that are primarily responsible for this process. Viruses, on the other hand, do not have the metabolic machinery necessary for breaking down cellulose and therefore do not play a role in this process.

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Based on the symptoms described, the mineral that is likely deficient in the diet of the layers is calcium. Calcium is an essential mineral that is necessary for many bodily functions, including the formation of strong bones and teeth. It is also essential for the proper functioning of the nervous system, muscles, and cardiovascular system. Soft-shelled eggs are a common symptom of calcium deficiency in laying hens. Calcium is required to form the hard, protective shell of an egg. When a hen does not get enough calcium in her diet, the shell of her eggs may become thin, soft, or even absent. Therefore, based on the given symptoms, it is likely that the flock of layers is not getting enough calcium in their diet, which is causing them to lay soft-shelled eggs.

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The record which shows all the assets on a poultry farm is called an inventory record. An inventory record is a comprehensive list of all the items, supplies, and equipment on the farm, including the poultry itself. It helps farmers keep track of their assets and ensures they have the necessary resources to keep their operations running smoothly. The inventory record can include items such as feed, medications, vaccines, bedding, waterers, feeders, incubators, and any other equipment or supplies used on the farm. By maintaining an accurate inventory record, farmers can easily monitor their stock levels, reorder items when necessary, and avoid running out of critical supplies. In summary, an inventory record is a crucial tool for managing a poultry farm as it helps farmers keep track of their assets, maintain adequate stock levels, and ensure smooth operations.

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The disease that is associated with cyclic movement and shaking of the head in poultry is Newcastle disease. Newcastle disease is a highly contagious viral infection that affects poultry, including chickens, ducks, and turkeys. It is characterized by respiratory and nervous system symptoms, which include gasping, coughing, sneezing, nasal discharge, and twisting of the neck. Infected birds may also exhibit nervous signs, such as paralysis, tremors, and convulsions. One of the classic symptoms of Newcastle disease in poultry is the shaking of the head and a cyclic movement. This is due to the virus attacking the bird's nervous system, causing neurological symptoms. Infected birds may also exhibit other nervous signs, such as paralysis of the wings and legs, twisting of the neck, and other abnormal movements. In summary, cyclic movement and shaking of the head are disease symptoms associated with Newcastle disease in poultry. It is a highly contagious viral infection that affects the respiratory and nervous system of poultry, causing a range of symptoms, including neurological signs.

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(a)

1. (i) Fodder refers to food for livestock, including both forage plants (e.g. grasses, clovers, alfalfa) and supplementary feed (e.g. grain, hay).
2. (ii) Paddocking refers to the practice of dividing a pasture into smaller areas or sections, often with the use of fences, to control the movement and grazing patterns of livestock. This allows for better distribution of forage and can help prevent overgrazing in certain areas.
3. (iii) Reseeding refers to the process of planting new seed in a pasture to replenish or improve the existing forage. This can be done to replace worn out or depleted areas, to add new species, or to improve the quality and productivity of the pasture.
4. (iv) Stocking rate refers to the number of livestock per unit of land, typically expressed as animals per hectare or acre. It is an important factor in pasture and range management, as it affects the amount of forage available and the impact of grazing on the land.
5. (v) Natural pasture refers to land that is used for grazing and has not been significantly altered by human activities such as cultivation or fertilization. Natural pastures may include native vegetation and may support a variety of wildlife species.

(b) Five factors that could affect the establishment of pasture in West Africa are:

1. Soil fertility: Poor soil quality can limit the growth and productivity of pasture plants.
2. Climate: Extreme temperatures, frequent drought, or heavy rainfall can all impact the establishment and survival of pasture plants.
3. Pest and disease pressure: Certain pests and diseases can damage or kill pasture plants, reducing their productivity and quality.
4. Availability of water: Adequate water is essential for the growth and survival of pasture plants and may be limited in certain regions of West Africa.
5. Competition from weeds: Invasive weeds can outcompete pasture plants for resources such as light, water, and nutrients, reducing the productivity of the pasture.

(c) Five ways in which weeds are of economic importance in livestock production are:

1. Forage: Some weeds can provide a source of food for livestock, especially in times of drought or when other forage is scarce.
2. Pest control: Certain weed species can act as a trap crop, attracting pests away from crops or pasture plants, reducing the need for chemical pesticides.
3. Soil improvement: Weeds can help to improve soil structure and fertility through their root systems, which can help to increase the productivity of pastures.
4. Biodiversity: Weeds can provide habitat and food for beneficial insects and other wildlife, which can help to maintain a healthy and diverse ecosystem.
5. Medicinal uses: Some weed species have medicinal properties and can be used to treat a variety of livestock diseases, reducing the need for expensive veterinary treatments.

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a)

1. (i) Coprophagy: Coprophagy refers to the act of animals eating their own feces. This behavior is common in some species of animals, such as rabbits, and is believed to help them extract more nutrients from their food.
2. (ii) Rumination: Rumination refers to the process of regurgitation and rechewing of food by ruminant animals, such as cattle, goats, and sheep. This helps to break down the food further, allowing the animal to extract more nutrients.
3. (iii) Candling: Candling is a method used to inspect eggs for fertility or quality. The egg is held up to a bright light source, such as a candle, and the contents of the egg can be seen through the shell. This allows farmers to determine whether an egg is fertile or not, and to assess its overall quality.
4. (iv) Tethering: Tethering refers to the practice of tying an animal to a stationary object, such as a stake or a tree, to restrict its movement. This is often used in animal husbandry to keep animals in a specific area or to prevent them from roaming.

b) Four local materials that could be used for constructing a goat house are:

• Mud
• Straw
• Bamboo
• Wood

c)

1. (i) The three members of a honey bee colony are the queen bee, the worker bees, and the drones. The queen bee is responsible for laying eggs and maintaining the colony, while the worker bees gather nectar and pollen, build the honeycomb, and care for the young bees. The drones are male bees whose sole purpose is to mate with the queen.
2. (ii) Five ways in which honey beekeeping is important are:

1. Honey production: Honey is a valuable product that is widely used for food, medicine, and cosmetics. Beekeeping provides a source of income for farmers and helps to meet the demand for honey.
2. Pollination: Honey bees are important pollinators for many crops, including fruits, vegetables, and nuts. By keeping bees, farmers can improve crop yields and quality.
3. Biodiversity: Honey bees play a key role in maintaining the biodiversity of ecosystems by pollinating a wide range of plants.
4. Medical uses: Honey has antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties, making it useful in the treatment of wounds and other medical conditions.
5. Ecological balance: Honey bees help to maintain the balance of ecosystems by pollinating plants and contributing to the food chain.

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(a)

1. (i) The farm animal that produces specimen A (Honey) is a honeybee.
2. (ii) Two other products obtained from honeybees are beeswax and royal jelly.
3. (iii) The four uses of honey include:
   • As a natural sweetener in foods and beverages.
   • As a natural remedy for sore throats and coughs.
   • As an ingredient in beauty and skincare products.
   • As a natural preservative in some foods.

(b)

1. (i) Steps involved in the preparation of bone meal from specimen B (Bone) for livestock feed are:
   • Collecting bones from animals, such as cows or pigs.
   • Cleaning the bones to remove any remaining tissue or meat.
   • Drying the bones to remove any moisture.
   • Grinding the dried bones into a fine powder to make bone meal.
2. (ii) Two precautions that should be taken during the preparation of bone meal are:
   • Ensuring that the bones are from healthy animals to prevent the spread of diseases.
   • Wearing protective gear, such as gloves and a mask, to prevent inhaling the fine bone dust.
3. (iii) Two minerals that could be obtained from specimen B (Bone) are calcium and phosphorus. Calcium is essential for bone and teeth health, muscle function, and nerve transmission. Phosphorus is important for bone and teeth formation, energy production, and DNA synthesis. When bone meal is added to livestock feed, it helps to provide these essential minerals to the animals.

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None

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(a) (i) Flushing refers to the process of increasing the nutritional intake of a female animal (such as a cow or ewe) prior to mating in order to improve her fertility and the chances of conception. This is typically done by providing the animal with a high-nutrient diet for a period of time, usually two to four weeks. (ii) Dystocia refers to difficulty during the birthing process, which can include problems with the position or presentation of the fetus, the size or shape of the birth canal, or other factors that prevent the normal progression of labor. (iii) Parturition refers to the process of giving birth, including the onset of labor, the delivery of the fetus and placenta, and the postpartum recovery period. (b) Five ways in which fencing is important in livestock production include: 1. Keeping livestock contained and preventing them from escaping or wandering into dangerous or restricted areas. 2. Protecting livestock from predators, such as coyotes or wild dogs, that might attack or harm them. 3. Providing a physical barrier between livestock and other animals, such as neighboring cattle or wildlife, that might spread disease or cause injury. 4. Allowing for the rotation of grazing areas, which helps to manage the pasture and improve the quality of the forage. 5. Providing a clear boundary between the livestock operation and adjacent properties, which helps to maintain good relationships with neighbors and reduces the risk of conflicts or disputes. (c) Five ways in which rearing of rabbits is important include: 1. Providing a source of high-quality protein, which is an essential nutrient for human consumption and animal feed. 2. Allowing for efficient production of meat and fur, as rabbits have a relatively short life cycle and are highly reproductive. 3. Requiring minimal land and resources for production, making them a suitable option for small-scale farmers or those with limited resources. 4. Offering a low-impact alternative to traditional livestock production, as rabbits are relatively clean and quiet and do not require large amounts of pasture or feed. 5. Providing an opportunity for diversification of a farming operation, which can help to reduce risk and increase overall income. (d) Four disadvantages of the deep litter system in poultry production are: 1. Increased risk of disease: The deep litter system involves the accumulation of large amounts of manure and bedding material, which can create an environment that is conducive to the growth of harmful bacteria and parasites. This can increase the risk of disease transmission among birds, as well as the risk of contamination of the eggs or meat. 2. Poor air quality: The deep litter system can result in poor air quality, as the accumulation of manure and bedding material generates ammonia and other noxious gases that can be harmful to the birds and workers. 3. Labor-intensive: The deep litter system requires frequent cleaning and management, which can be time-consuming and labor-intensive. This can increase the cost of production and make the system less feasible for smaller-scale operations. 4. Difficulty in controlling temperature: The deep litter system can be difficult to regulate temperature, as the bedding material and manure can insulate the birds from the air, creating warm and humid conditions that can be stressful for the birds and negatively impact their health and performance.

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(a)

(i) Hand mating: Hand mating is a method of mating in farm animals where the breeding process is done manually. A farmer or a breeder would supervise the mating process and assist the animals to mate.

(ii) Pen mating: Pen mating is a method of mating in farm animals where the breeding process is done in a confined area, such as a pen or stall. The animals are kept in a controlled environment, and the mating process is monitored.

(iii) Pasture mating: Pasture mating is a method of mating in farm animals where the breeding process is done in an open field or pasture. The animals are allowed to roam freely and mate naturally in their natural habitat.

(b)

(i)

(a) Hand mating:

Advantages:

1. Controlled breeding: By hand mating, the farmer can control the breeding process and ensure that the animals are mating correctly.
2. Increased chance of successful mating: By assisting the animals during mating, the farmer can increase the chances of a successful mating.

(b) Pen mating:

Advantages:

1. Controlled environment: By mating the animals in a controlled environment, the farmer can ensure that the animals are safe and secure during the breeding process.
2. Increased supervision: By mating the animals in a confined area, the farmer can easily supervise the mating process and intervene if necessary.

(c) Pasture mating:

Advantages:

1. Natural habitat: By mating the animals in their natural habitat, they can be less stressed and more comfortable during the breeding process.
2. Increased genetic diversity: By allowing the animals to mate naturally, the farmer can increase genetic diversity in their herd.

(ii)

(a) Hand mating:

Disadvantages:

1. Labor-intensive: Hand mating requires a lot of manual labor and can be time-consuming.
2. Risk of injury: There is a risk of injury to the farmer or the animals during the mating process.

(b) Pen mating:

Disadvantages:

1. Increased stress: By confining the animals in a small area, they may become stressed and agitated, which can negatively impact their health and well-being.
2. Limited genetic diversity: By mating the animals in a confined area, the farmer may limit genetic diversity in their herd.

(c) Pasture mating:

Disadvantages:

1. Lack of control: By mating the animals in a pasture, the farmer has limited control over the breeding process.
2. Increased risk of disease: By allowing the animals to roam freely and mate in an open environment, there is an increased risk of disease transmission.

(c)

Two methods of collecting semen from a bull