WAEC SSCE - Biology - 2012

The diagram above is an illustration of an experimental setup to test the action of
yeast. What test would be used to confirm the nature of the gas given off at?

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The test that would be used to confirm the nature of the gas given off in the experimental setup is to pass the gas through lime water. This is because lime water (Calcium hydroxide solution) reacts with carbon dioxide gas, which is one of the gases produced during yeast fermentation, to form a milky precipitate of calcium carbonate. If the gas given off by the yeast is carbon dioxide, then the lime water will turn milky when passed through it, confirming the nature of the gas.

The primary cause of species endangerment is

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The primary cause of species endangerment is disappearing habitats. This means that the natural habitats of many species are being destroyed or altered, which leads to a reduction in their population and can ultimately lead to their extinction. Human activities such as deforestation, urbanization, and pollution are the major drivers of habitat loss. As habitats disappear, species lose access to food, water, and shelter, making it difficult for them to survive. Therefore, conservation efforts are essential to protect habitats and prevent the extinction of species.

Which of the individual is likely to be suffering from haemophilia?

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Which of the following structures in a flower develops into the seed?

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The structure in a flower that develops into the seed is the ovule. The ovule is located inside the ovary of the flower and contains the female gamete. After pollination and fertilization, the ovule develops into a seed which contains an embryo that will develop into a new plant. The integument is the protective covering of the ovule and becomes the seed coat after fertilization. The testa is the protective outer covering of the seed.

Increasing adrenalin content of the blood would be expected to decrease the flow of blood to the

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The graph above represents the growth pattern of an animal. Which of the following groups of animals shows this
pattern of growth?

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A student dissecting am animal specimen discovered that it had two auricle and on ventricle. The animal is likely to a/an

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The following are all examples of a simple reflex action, except

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Walking is not an example of a simple reflex action. Simple reflex actions are those that occur automatically and involuntarily in response to a specific stimulus, without involving conscious thought. Examples of simple reflex actions include swallowing, sneezing, and blinking. However, walking is a complex action that involves the coordinated movement of muscles and the involvement of various parts of the brain, and is not a simple reflex action.

Which of the following instruments would be most appropriate in comparing the air pressure at different places in the habitat?

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The most appropriate instrument for comparing air pressure at different places in the habitat is a barometer. A barometer is an instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure, and it can help in identifying high-pressure and low-pressure areas in the habitat. By comparing the readings of the barometer at different places in the habitat, we can determine which areas have higher or lower air pressure, which can have implications for weather patterns and other environmental conditions. The other instruments listed (hygrometer, photometer, and air pressure disc) measure humidity, light intensity, and air pressure changes, respectively, but they are not specifically designed to measure atmospheric pressure at different locations.

In which of the zones can very few organisms be found

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The zone with very few organisms is zone IV, which is also known as the abyssal zone. This zone is characterized by very high pressure, very low temperatures, and complete darkness. The extreme conditions in this zone make it very difficult for organisms to survive, and as a result, only a few organisms are adapted to live in this zone. The organisms that can survive in the abyssal zone are often specially adapted to the extreme conditions, such as high pressure and low temperatures. They also have specialized feeding and reproductive mechanisms to cope with the lack of sunlight and low levels of organic matter.

Two yellow-flowered hybrid plants each carrying a recessive factor for flowers with green colour were crossed.
Which of the following ratios shows the correct proportion of offspring that have green flowers?

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In this scenario, both hybrid plants have a recessive factor for green flower color, which means they both have the genotype "yy". When these two plants are crossed, the Punnett square for the F1 generation will result in all offspring having the genotype "Yy" (yellow flower color). However, since the "Y" allele is dominant, they will all exhibit the yellow flower color phenotype. If two of these F1 offspring are crossed, the Punnett square for the F2 generation will result in a ratio of 3 yellow-flowered plants to 1 green-flowered plant. This is because both parents have a genotype of "Yy", meaning they each have a 50% chance of passing on the dominant "Y" allele or the recessive "y" allele to their offspring. The only way for a plant to have green flowers is to inherit two copies of the recessive "y" allele, which occurs with a probability of 1 in 4 or 25%. Therefore, the correct ratio is 1 in 4. So, the correct answer is "1 in 4".

How many food chains are in the diagram?

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What is the benefit of thunder and lightning to farmers?

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Thunder and lightning are natural phenomena that occur during thunderstorms. Thunderstorms usually bring rain, and rainwater is essential for crop growth. When lightning occurs, it splits nitrogen molecules in the air which then combine with oxygen to form nitrates. These nitrates dissolve in the rainwater and are deposited in the soil as it rains. Nitrates are an essential nutrient for plants and help them to grow better. Therefore, the benefit of thunder and lightning to farmers is that they add nitrates to the soil, which can lead to increased crop yields.

Plants with breathing roots are characteristic features of vegetation in

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Plants with breathing roots are characteristic features of vegetation in saltwater swamp. In saltwater swamps, the soil is often waterlogged with high salt content, and oxygen levels can be low. Therefore, plants in these regions have evolved special adaptations to survive in such conditions, such as breathing roots, which are roots that grow above the water surface to allow the exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the root system. This adaptation helps the plants to obtain oxygen from the air and remove excess carbon dioxide and other gases from the roots. Examples of plants with breathing roots found in saltwater swamps include mangroves and some species of palms.

The organism at the organ level of organisation of life is

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Among the options given, the organism at the organ level of organization of life is "Ginger". Ginger is a plant that exhibits organ level of organization. It has different organs such as roots, stem, leaves, and flowers that have specialized functions. The roots of ginger are used for storage of food and absorption of water and nutrients from the soil, the stem provides support for the leaves and flowers, the leaves are responsible for photosynthesis, and the flowers are involved in reproduction. On the other hand, Euglena and Spirogyra are unicellular organisms that exhibit cellular level of organization, and Tapeworm is a multicellular organism that exhibits tissue level of organization.

In which of the following multicellular organisms is-interdependence of cells maintained?

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The interdependence of cells refers to the mutual reliance of cells on each other for survival and functioning as a single organism. Among the given options, Volvox is a multicellular organism where interdependence of cells is maintained. In Volvox, each cell has a specific role to play, and they work together to perform various functions like movement, feeding, and reproduction. The cells are interconnected by cytoplasmic strands that allow them to communicate and share resources. The interdependence of cells ensures the proper functioning of the organism as a whole.

Squirrels easily kill some trees because

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Squirrels can easily kill some trees because they gnaw the bark and destroy it. The bark is essential to the tree's survival because it contains the phloem and xylem, which transport food and water throughout the tree. Without bark, the tree cannot transport these essential materials, and it will eventually die. Squirrels gnaw the bark for various reasons, such as to obtain food or create a nest, but the result is often fatal for the tree.

The hair on the human skin will stand erect when the person is

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Which of the following sequences is the correct evolutionary trend in plants?

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The correct evolutionary trend in plants is Algae → liverworts → mosses → ferns. This is because algae, liverworts, mosses, and ferns represent the different stages in the evolution of plants. Algae are simple aquatic plants that lack specialized tissues for conducting water and nutrients. Liverworts and mosses evolved from algae and have specialized structures to absorb water and nutrients from their environment. Ferns evolved from mosses and have vascular tissue for conducting water and nutrients throughout the plant. Therefore, the correct sequence of the evolutionary trend is Algae → liverworts → mosses → ferns.

The following are abiotic components of the ecosystem except

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The answer is bacteria. Bacteria are living organisms and belong to the biotic components of the ecosystem. Biotic components of the ecosystem include all living things such as plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms. Abiotic components, on the other hand, include all non-living things in the ecosystem such as water, air, soil, rocks, sunlight, wind, and topography. Therefore, is the correct answer as it is a living organism and not an abiotic component of the ecosystem.

In a case of complete dominance, what is the phenotypic ratio of the cross Bb X Bb; where B =black and b = white?

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The epidermis of a leaf is considered an example of a tissue because the cells

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The epidermis of a leaf is considered an example of a tissue because the cells all possess a similar structure and function. The epidermal cells are tightly packed and flattened to form a continuous layer that covers the entire surface of the leaf. They are covered by a waxy cuticle, which helps to prevent water loss through the leaf surface. The main function of the epidermis is to protect the leaf from external damage and regulate the exchange of gases, such as carbon dioxide and oxygen, between the leaf and the environment. Therefore, the epidermis of a leaf is considered a tissue because it is composed of a group of similar cells that perform a specific function.

Which of the following processes occurs in the second phase of meiosis?

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The correct answer is "homologous chromosomes separate". Meiosis is a type of cell division that occurs in sexually reproducing organisms, and it involves two rounds of cell division. The first phase of meiosis is called meiosis I, and it involves the separation of homologous chromosomes. In the second phase, meiosis II, the sister chromatids of each chromosome separate, resulting in four haploid daughter cells. Therefore, the process that occurs in the second phase of meiosis is the separation of sister chromatids, and this is what leads to the formation of four haploid daughter cells.

The pulmonary circulation involves movement of the blood to and from the

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The pulmonary circulation involves the movement of blood to and from the lungs. It is a part of the circulatory system that specifically deals with the transportation of deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs, where the blood is oxygenated, and then returned to the heart. This process is facilitated by the pulmonary arteries and veins, which carry the blood to and from the lungs, respectively. The oxygenated blood is then circulated to the rest of the body through the systemic circulation, while the deoxygenated blood returns to the lungs via the pulmonary circulation.

The classes of fingerprints in man are

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The classes of fingerprints in man are: whorl, arch, loop, and compound. Whorls are spiral patterns with at least two deltas (triangular ridges) and a ridge tracing that makes a complete circuit; arches have a ridgeline that enters from one side of the finger, makes a rise in the center, and exits from the opposite side; loops have ridges that enter from one side, curve around or upward, and exit from the same side they entered; and compound fingerprints have two or more patterns with no single pattern present in 50% or more of the fingerprint. These classes are used in forensic analysis and identification, as each individual has a unique set of fingerprints.

Which of the following statements is true about the ABO blood group system?

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The diagrams above are part of the human lungs. Which of the parts is diagram Z taken from

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In the diagram, the arrow labelled II represents the

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Excess carbohydrates can be stored in the muscles in the form

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Excess carbohydrates can be stored in the muscles in the form of glycogen. Glycogen is a complex carbohydrate made up of many glucose molecules linked together in a branched chain. When the body has more glucose than it needs for energy, it stores the excess glucose as glycogen in the liver and muscles. The glycogen in the muscles can be broken down into glucose when the body needs energy during exercise or other activities.

Which of the following substances must be present in the soil for growth of a healthy green plant?

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Magnesium ions must be present in the soil for the growth of a healthy green plant. Magnesium is an essential mineral nutrient for plants and is involved in many important plant functions, such as photosynthesis, enzyme activation, and the production of chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is the pigment responsible for the green color of leaves and is necessary for photosynthesis. Without magnesium, plants cannot produce enough chlorophyll, which can result in yellowing leaves, stunted growth, and poor yields. While the other options listed are important for plant growth, magnesium ions are particularly crucial for a healthy green plant.

Bees are of great importance to the farmer because they

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Bees are important to farmers because they pollinate flowers. When bees fly from flower to flower collecting nectar, they transfer pollen from the male part of the flower to the female part, which fertilizes the plant and allows it to produce fruit or seeds. This is crucial for the reproduction of many crops, including fruits, vegetables, and nuts. Without bees, the yields of these crops would be significantly reduced, and in some cases, the plants would not be able to produce fruit or seeds at all. While bees do produce honey, this is not their primary role in agriculture.

Impulses are conducted towards the nerve cell through the

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Impulses are conducted towards the nerve cell through the dendrons. Dendrons are the branch-like structures that extend from the cell body of a neuron and receive impulses from other neurons or sensory receptors. These impulses then travel through the dendrites and into the cell body before being transmitted along the axon to other neurons or effectors such as muscles or glands. The myelin sheath is a fatty layer that covers some axons and helps to speed up the transmission of impulses, while the synaptic nodes are small gaps between neurons where neurotransmitters are released to allow for communication between neurons.

The detection of vibro cholera in public drinking water is a sign of

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The use of water closet and septic tanks is preferred to the use of
bucket and pit latrines because

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The use of water closet and septic tanks is preferred to the use of bucket and pit latrines because contaminated faeces are completely kept away from flies. Water closets and septic tanks are designed in such a way that the human waste is channeled away from the house and stored in an underground chamber called a septic tank. The septic tank is designed to digest and decompose the waste and discharge water into the soil. This system ensures that the waste is completely kept away from flies and other insects, preventing the spread of diseases. Conversely, bucket and pit latrines are not completely sealed, and the waste can attract flies, which can spread disease. Therefore, the use of water closet and septic tanks is a more effective way to prevent the spread of disease.

The appropriate food to be given to the child in the
picture above is

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Which of the following factors would be least likely to act as a density dependent limiting factor in a population of
mice?

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The purpose of proteins in the diet of a mammal is to

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The purpose of proteins in the diet of a mammal is to promote growth and repair cells. Proteins are essential macronutrients made up of amino acids, which are the building blocks of cells. When we eat proteins, our digestive system breaks them down into individual amino acids which can be used by our bodies to build and repair tissues such as muscles, skin, and organs. Amino acids are also involved in the production of enzymes and hormones that help to regulate various body functions. Additionally, some amino acids can be used as a source of energy when needed.

The science of life is referred to as

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The science of life is referred to as biology. Biology is the study of living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, and distribution. It encompasses a wide range of topics, from the smallest cells to the largest ecosystems, and provides us with knowledge about the diversity of life on earth, the interrelationships between organisms, and their interaction with the environment. Biology is an important field of study because it helps us to better understand the world around us and to develop new technologies and medical treatments based on our knowledge of living organisms.

The best title for the above diagram is

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The best title for the above diagram is "Terrestrial food chain". This is because the diagram shows the flow of energy from producers (plants) to primary consumers (herbivores), to secondary consumers (carnivores), and so on, within a land-based ecosystem. The arrows in the diagram indicate the direction of energy transfer, and the labels on each organism show their position in the food chain. The term "food web" typically refers to a more complex diagram that includes multiple interconnected food chains, whereas this diagram only shows a single, linear food chain.

The diagram above is an illustration of the human excretory system. Which of the labelled parts contains the
highest amount of nitrogenous waste?

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Label IV, the kidney, contains the highest amount of nitrogenous waste. The kidneys are responsible for filtering and removing waste products such as urea and uric acid from the blood. These nitrogenous wastes are produced as a result of protein metabolism in the body, and the kidneys work to remove them from the blood and excrete them in the urine. Therefore, since the kidneys are responsible for the removal of nitrogenous waste, they contain the highest amount of it among the labelled parts in the diagram.

The disadvantage of complexity of organisation in the higher organisms is that it leads to

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The disadvantage of complexity of organisation in the higher organisms is that it leads to a slower rate of diffusion of oxygen to individual cells. In higher organisms, such as animals and plants, there is an intricate network of tissues and organs that work together to perform vital functions. This complexity requires a vast amount of energy to maintain and a greater reliance on oxygen for cellular respiration. However, as organisms get bigger and more complex, the distance between the surface of the organism and the innermost cells increases, resulting in a slower rate of diffusion of oxygen to individual cells. This can limit the size of organisms and their ability to survive in low-oxygen environments.

In the diagram, the function of the part labelled is to

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The muscle cell fluid of an athlete was tested immediately after a 1 O m race and was found to contain a high
concentration of lactic acid. Explain what could have caused this. The

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The high concentration of lactic acid found in the muscle cell fluid of an athlete immediately after a 10 m race is likely caused by anaerobic respiration that occurred during the race. Anaerobic respiration is a process of cellular respiration that takes place in the absence of oxygen, producing lactic acid as a byproduct. During intense exercise, such as a sprint, the body may not be able to supply enough oxygen to the muscles, forcing them to switch to anaerobic respiration. This produces lactic acid which can accumulate in the muscles and cause fatigue and discomfort. Therefore, the most likely cause of the high concentration of lactic acid found in the athlete's muscle cell fluid is due to the anaerobic respiration of the muscles during the race.

The function of the convex lens in the correction of eye defects is to

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The function of the convex lens in correcting eye defects is to converge light rays from far objects to focus their image on the retina. In people with myopia (short-sightedness), the image is focused in front of the retina, resulting in a blurred image. Placing a convex lens in front of the eye causes light rays to converge more, allowing the image to be focused on the retina. This corrects the vision so that distant objects appear clear.

In the structure of DNA, which of the following statements is true?

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What name is given to a sudden change in a gene or chromosome?

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A sudden change in a gene or chromosome is called a "mutation." Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence that can result in altered or new characteristics in an organism. They can occur spontaneously or be induced by external factors such as radiation or chemicals. Mutations can have different effects, ranging from neutral or harmful to beneficial, depending on the location and nature of the change. The occurrence of mutations is the basis of genetic diversity, which is essential for evolution and adaptation of species to changing environments.

The following pairs of traits are examples of continuous and discontinuous variations respectively except

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A space containing a group of interactive organisms
is called

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Two plants with red flowers were back crossed, which of the following results indicate that the plants are heterozygous
red flowers, where red flowers are dominant?

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If two plants with red flowers were backcrossed, it means that one parent is homozygous dominant for red flowers (RR) and the other parent is heterozygous for red flowers (Rr). Therefore, the possible genotypes of the offspring are: - 50% chance of getting Rr (heterozygous for red flowers) - 50% chance of getting rr (homozygous recessive for white flowers) If the plants are heterozygous for red flowers (Rr), the phenotype (physical appearance) ratio of their offspring will be 3:1 (red:white). This means that 75% of the offspring will have red flowers and 25% will have white flowers. Therefore, the answer is "75% red and 25% white" which is the option that indicates heterozygosity.

When fertilization occurs that leads to formation of a zygote, which of the following processes takes place?

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When fertilization occurs, the nucleus of the sperm fuses with the nucleus of the egg cell. This results in the formation of a zygote, which contains the genetic material from both parents. The tail of the sperm and its other components are left outside the egg cell and do not fuse with it. The fusion of the sperm and egg nuclei triggers a series of events that lead to the development of a new organism.

Which of the following food substances will have
little or no calorific value?

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Water is the food substance that will have little or no calorific value. This is because water does not contain any significant amount of energy or calories that can be metabolized by the body to provide energy. While proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids all contain calories that can be used as a source of energy, water is primarily used by the body for hydration and other physiological functions but not for providing energy. Therefore, consuming water will not contribute significantly to the caloric intake of an individual.

An illustration of a human male reproductive system is shown above. Which of the labelled parts can be cut to-ensure permanent sterility?

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As shown in the illustration, part II, the vas deferens, can be cut to ensure permanent sterility. This is because the vas deferens is a tube that carries sperm from the testes to the urethra during ejaculation. By cutting the vas deferens, the sperm cannot be released during sexual intercourse, thus resulting in permanent sterility.

The brightly coloured petals in some plants is an adaptive colouration for

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Brightly colored petals in some plants serve as an adaptive coloration for pollination. Pollination is the process by which pollen grains are transferred from the male part of a plant to the female part of a plant, leading to fertilization and seed production. Brightly colored petals help to attract pollinators, such as bees, butterflies, and hummingbirds, which are attracted to the bright colors and sweet nectar of the flowers. The pollinators then transfer the pollen from one flower to another, ensuring cross-fertilization and genetic diversity. Therefore, the brightly colored petals are an adaptation of the plant to increase the chances of successful pollination and reproduction.

Which of the following parts of the eye contains light sensitive cells?

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Which of the individual is likely to have HIV?

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Which of the following factors exerts a major effect on the distribution of living organisms in the habitat?

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Which of the following diseases is transmittable through genes?

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Sickle cell anemia is the disease that is transmittable through genes. It is a genetic disorder caused by a mutation in the hemoglobin gene. People with sickle cell anemia inherit two copies of the mutated gene, one from each parent, and this causes the hemoglobin in their red blood cells to be abnormal. The abnormal hemoglobin causes the red blood cells to take a crescent or sickle shape, which can block blood flow, leading to pain, organ damage, and an increased risk of infections.

The bones of the legs of a six years old boy are observed to be weak and crooked. Which of the following elements
were deficient in his mother’s diet at pregnancy?

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The element that is most likely to be deficient in the mother's diet during pregnancy and cause weak and crooked bones in the child is calcium and phosphorus. Calcium is an important element for bone formation and its deficiency can lead to a condition called rickets which results in weak and deformed bones. Phosphorus is also necessary for proper bone growth and development. Deficiency in both these elements during pregnancy can result in skeletal abnormalities in the developing fetus. Therefore, the most appropriate answer would be (c) Calcium and phosphorus.

Which of the following digestive enzymes would be greatly affected if the liver fails to
produce bile?

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The correct answer is Lipase. Bile is produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. It helps in emulsifying fats into smaller droplets, which increases the surface area for lipase to act upon. Lipase is the enzyme responsible for the breakdown of fats into fatty acids and glycerol. Without sufficient bile to emulsify fats, the lipase enzyme will have a reduced surface area to act upon, thus leading to decreased digestion and absorption of fats. Therefore, if the liver fails to produce bile, the activity of lipase will be greatly affected.

The major role played by accessory pigments during photosynthesis is to?

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Accessory pigments play a major role in photosynthesis by trapping light energy that chlorophyll cannot absorb. Chlorophyll is the primary pigment that absorbs light energy, but it can only absorb certain wavelengths of light. Accessory pigments such as carotenoids and phycobilins are able to absorb additional wavelengths of light that chlorophyll cannot, and transfer the energy to chlorophyll. This increases the efficiency of photosynthesis by allowing more light energy to be absorbed and converted into chemical energy. Therefore, the correct option is "trap light energy that chlorophyll cannot absorb".

The area around the earth where life activities go on is referred to as

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The area around the earth where life activities go on is referred to as the "biosphere". The biosphere is a combination of all living organisms, their habitats, and the ecological processes that sustain life. It includes the atmosphere (air), lithosphere (land), and hydrosphere (water), where living organisms interact with each other and the physical environment. The biosphere is essential for the survival and existence of all life on earth, and it plays a vital role in regulating the planet's climate, air quality, and water cycles.

The main raw materials required for photosynthesis are

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The main raw materials required for photosynthesis are carbon dioxide and water. During photosynthesis, plants use energy from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide from the air and water from the soil into glucose (a type of sugar) and oxygen. This process occurs in the chloroplasts of plant cells, which contain the pigment chlorophyll that absorbs light energy. The oxygen produced during photosynthesis is released into the atmosphere as a byproduct, while the glucose serves as the plant's source of energy for growth and development.

(a) (i) Describe epigeal germination of a seed.
(ii) In a tabular form, state three differences between epige germination and hypogeal germination.

(b)(i) What is seed dormancy?
(ii) State three ways b which dormancy in seeds can be broken.

(c) State six advantages of using contraceptives in puma populations.

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None

(a) Explain the following terms:
(i) disease
(ii) symptoms of diseases.

(b)(i) List two physical and two chemical barriers that prevent pathogens from penetrating the body of an organism.
(ii) Explain how vaccination protects the body from contracting infectious diseases.

(c) Distinguish between an antibody and a antigen.

(d) Name the causative agents of:
(i) Malaria
(ii) Cholera
(iii) AIDS.

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None

TEST OF PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE QUESTION

Study carefully specimens J, K and L and use them to answer questions 4(a) to 4(d).

(a)(i) State the class of each of specimens J, K and L

(ii) State three reasons each for placing each of specimens J, K and L in their classes.

(b) State two structural adaptations possessed by each of specimens K and L for escaping predators.

(c) Make a drawing, 8 - 10cm long of the lateral view of specimen J.

(d) State: (i) two similarities; (ii) two observable differences between specimens J and L.

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None

(a) Explain briefly the following terms:
(i) conservation
(ii) endangered species.

(b) State: (i) five reasons why conservation of forests is important;
(ii) four ways by which forest reserves can be conserved.

(c)(i) What is the importance of decomposers in the ecosystem?
(ii) Name one plant and one animal decomposer. 

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None

TEST OF PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE QUESTION

Study carefully specimens C, D and E and use them to answer questions 2(a) to 2(c).

(a) (i) State the mode of nutrition of specimen D.

(ii) State one way by which each of specimens C, D and E is of economic importance.

(b)(i) Classify specimens C, D and E into their phyla and classes.

(ii) List three observable characteristic features of each of the classes to which specimens C, D and E belong. 

(iii) In a tabular form, state two observable differences between C and D.

(C) List four observable features of specimen E that are sensory in nature.

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None

(a) Explain briefly four factors that affect the diffusion of substances.

(b) Explain the following terms:
(i) active transport
(ii) transpiration.

(c) State four ways by which plants can reduce high rate of transpiration.

(d) State the features of red blood cells and how these features adapt the cell to perform its functions. 

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None