WAEC SSCE - Government - 2016

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The institution of government that makes bye-laws is the local authorities. Bye-laws are specific rules and regulations created by local authorities to govern a particular area or community. Local authorities are responsible for providing essential public services and maintaining law and order within their jurisdictions. They are usually made up of elected officials who represent the people at the grassroots level, and they have the power to make and enforce local laws and regulations, including bye-laws.

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A notable feature of the cabinet system of government is collective responsibility. In a cabinet system of government, the executive power is vested in a cabinet or council of ministers who are responsible to the legislature, particularly the lower chamber, and who derive their authority from the confidence of the legislature. The cabinet is headed by a prime minister or a president who is the head of government. One of the notable features of the cabinet system of government is collective responsibility. This means that all members of the cabinet are jointly responsible for the decisions and actions of the government. Each minister is individually responsible for their own portfolio, but they are all bound by the principle of collective responsibility. This means that if one minister is found to have acted improperly, the entire cabinet may be held accountable and may be required to resign. The principle of collective responsibility ensures that the cabinet acts as a cohesive unit, and that decisions are made after extensive debate and discussion among members. It also promotes accountability and transparency in government, as all members of the cabinet are held responsible for the actions of the government. In summary, the notable feature of the cabinet system of government is collective responsibility, which ensures that all members of the cabinet are jointly responsible for the decisions and actions of the government, and promotes accountability and transparency in government.

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In a democracy, political sovereignty is vested in the people. This means that the ultimate power to make decisions and determine the direction of the government rests with the citizens of the country. It is the people who elect their representatives to the legislature, and these representatives are accountable to the people for their actions. The executive branch of government, which includes the president or prime minister and their cabinet, is also accountable to the people. In a democracy, the people have the right to participate in the political process through free and fair elections, and to express their opinions and grievances through various means, such as protests and petitions. Ultimately, the will of the people is what drives the democratic process and determines the course of government action.

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The desire for constitutional development in British West African colonies was primarily due to the growing agitation of the people for political independence. As colonialism began to decline globally, African colonies under British rule started demanding greater participation in their governance. The people of the colonies became more educated and politically conscious, and they began to press for political independence and self-rule. The desire for constitutional development was therefore a reflection of this growing demand for political participation and self-rule by the people of the colonies. The colonial government also recognized the need to review and update the constitution to meet the changing needs and aspirations of the people. The rigidity of the colonial constitution, which was designed to serve the interests of the colonial power, could no longer accommodate the growing demands for greater participation and self-rule. In summary, while the rigidity of the colonial constitution and the desire of the British to review the constitution played a role in the demand for constitutional development in British West African colonies, it was the growing agitation of the people for political independence and self-rule that was the primary driving force behind this desire.

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Federalism is a system of government where power is shared between the central government and the constituent units. The conditions for the adoption of federalism include size, population, and defence. However, homogeneity is not a condition for the adoption of federalism. Homogeneity means having a similar or uniform composition. In the context of federalism, a diverse composition of the constituent units is actually necessary for the adoption of federalism. If the constituent units are homogeneous, it may be easier and more efficient to have a unitary system of government. Therefore, the correct answer is "homogeneity."

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Power is the ability to do something or act in a certain way, while authority refers to the legal right or permission to do so. Therefore, power needs to be transformed into legal authority through legitimacy, which means that the exercise of power is seen as justified and appropriate by those who are subject to it. Legitimacy can be achieved through various means, such as elections, appointment through a recognized process, or the consent of those who are governed. Without legitimacy, the use of power may be seen as illegitimate or even tyrannical.

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When an action of the executive is declared ultra-vires, it is a control exercised by the judiciary. The term "ultra-vires" means "beyond the powers." When the executive branch of government takes an action that is beyond its powers, it is said to be acting ultra-vires. This can happen when the executive branch exceeds its authority under the law or when it takes actions that are not permitted by the constitution. In such cases, the judiciary can exercise control over the executive by declaring the action ultra-vires and invalid. This means that the action is declared illegal and cannot be enforced. The courts have the power to interpret the law and the constitution, and they can strike down actions by the executive that they determine to be unconstitutional or illegal. This control is an important aspect of the separation of powers in a democratic system. The judiciary acts as a check on the power of the executive, ensuring that it operates within the limits of the law and the constitution. This helps to protect individual rights and prevent abuses of power by the government.

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The term "government" typically refers to an organized group of people who are responsible for making and enforcing laws within a particular territory. This definition includes the process of governance and policy-making, as well as the institutions and individuals involved in these processes. However, the option "an institution made up of people with common interest" does not accurately describe what government is, as government is not simply a group of individuals with common interests, but rather a group with specific roles, responsibilities, and structures designed to carry out governance and policy-making functions. Therefore, the correct answer is "an institution made up of people with common interest".

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Suffrage refers to the right to vote in political elections. It is also commonly known as franchise. Therefore, the correct answer is "franchise."

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The official who enforces discipline among members of his party in parliament is the chief whip. In parliamentary systems, the chief whip is a member of parliament who is appointed by their political party to ensure that party members vote in line with the party's position on legislative matters. The chief whip is responsible for enforcing party discipline and ensuring that members attend important parliamentary sessions and votes. While the majority and minority leaders are also important figures in parliamentary politics, their primary role is to lead their respective parties in parliament and set the party's legislative agenda. The clerk of the House, on the other hand, is a parliamentary official who is responsible for maintaining the records and proceedings of the House, and is not involved in enforcing party discipline. In summary, the official who enforces discipline among members of his party in parliament is the chief whip, who is appointed by their political party to ensure that party members vote in line with the party's position on legislative matters.

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The system that allows the opposition to participate in governance is democratic. In a democratic system of government, all citizens have the right to participate in the political process, including the right to vote and the right to form and join political parties. The opposition refers to political parties or groups that are not in power or do not support the current government. In a democratic system, the opposition is allowed to participate in governance by having a say in the decision-making process through their elected representatives, participating in parliamentary debates, and holding the government accountable for its actions. This helps to ensure that the government is held responsible for its policies and actions and prevents it from becoming too authoritarian or dictatorial.

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Foreign policy is the set of general principles and strategies that guide a country in its interactions and relations with other countries or international actors. It encompasses a wide range of issues, such as diplomatic, economic, military, and cultural matters. Foreign policy is often shaped by a country's national interests, values, and goals, and it aims to promote and protect these interests in the global arena. Foreign policy can be made in both peace and war times, and it reflects a country's priorities and priorities of its leadership in managing international relations.

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Some pre-colonial West African governments were democratic because of the existence of checks and balances. Before the colonial era, many West African societies had systems of government that were based on a complex web of relationships between different social groups. These systems were often characterized by a strong sense of communalism, in which decisions were made by consensus rather than by a single ruler or governing body. One of the key features of these systems was the presence of checks and balances, which helped to prevent any one group or individual from becoming too powerful. For example, in some societies, the ruling council was made up of representatives from different clans or lineages, and decisions were made by consensus. In others, age grades or secret societies played an important role in regulating the actions of rulers and preventing abuses of power. These systems were also often characterized by a high degree of public participation and accountability. For example, rulers were often expected to consult with their subjects and take their views into account when making decisions. Disputes were typically resolved through public forums, such as village meetings or community courts, rather than through force or coercion. In summary, some pre-colonial West African governments were democratic because of the presence of checks and balances, which helped to prevent abuses of power and ensure public participation and accountability in decision-making.

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Military regimes in West Africa have often made use of civilians because they need the experience of civilians in government. Military regimes often come into power through coups or other forms of extra-constitutional means. As a result, they may lack the necessary skills and expertise to effectively run a government. In such situations, military regimes may turn to civilians to help them govern. Civilians can provide expertise in areas such as finance, administration, and law, which are necessary for the smooth functioning of a government. Additionally, civilians can help to provide legitimacy to a military regime, as they are seen as representing a broader range of society. However, it is important to note that the use of civilians by military regimes is often controversial, as it can be seen as a way of legitimizing an undemocratic government.

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Bye-laws are made through delegated legislation. This means that an authority or body is given the power to make laws or regulations within a specific area, usually granted to them by a higher legislative body, such as a national or state parliament. In the case of bye-laws, this power is often delegated to local authorities, such as city councils, to regulate matters within their jurisdiction. The process for making bye-laws typically involves public consultation, drafting and approval by the relevant authority or body, and publication. Bye-laws are typically enforceable in the same way as laws passed by a national or state parliament.

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Conventions are mostly used by states that have unwritten constitution. An unwritten constitution refers to a system of government where the fundamental principles and laws of the land are not codified into a single document, but rather exist in a combination of judicial decisions, parliamentary practices, and traditions. In such states, conventions play a vital role in determining the behavior of political actors and provide a framework for political decision-making. Conventions are informal practices, unwritten rules, and norms that are followed because of tradition or precedent, rather than because they are legally binding. Therefore, they are particularly important in situations where there is no written constitution to guide political behavior.

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The attribute of a state that is not listed is 'Common language'. While it is true that many states have a common language that is widely spoken among the population, it is not a necessary attribute for a state to exist. There are many states where multiple languages are spoken, or where there is no one language that is spoken by a majority of the population. The other attributes of a state are: - Definite territory: A state must have a clearly defined and recognized territory over which it exercises sovereignty. - Population: A state must have a group of people who inhabit its territory and who are subject to its laws and governance. - Government: A state must have a system of governance that exercises authority over its population and territory, and which is recognized by other states as the legitimate representative of the state.

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Membership of pressure groups is usually limited because they pursue specific and narrow objectives. Pressure groups are organizations that seek to influence government policies and decisions on behalf of a specific interest or cause. Unlike political parties, which aim to win elections and form governments, pressure groups have specific goals and focus on specific issues. As a result, membership in pressure groups is usually limited to individuals who share the same interests or goals. This helps to ensure that the group remains focused and effective in pursuing its objectives. Having too broad of a membership base could dilute the group's message and make it less effective in achieving its goals. Furthermore, pressure groups often require a high level of commitment from their members, including attending meetings, organizing events, and advocating for the group's cause. This level of commitment may not be sustainable for individuals who do not share the group's specific objectives. In summary, the limited membership of pressure groups helps to ensure that the group remains focused, effective, and committed in pursuing its specific goals and objectives.

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The privilege citizens enjoyed in a country irrespective of sex, tribe or creed is a right. A right is a legal or moral entitlement to have or do something. In this case, it refers to the entitlement of all citizens of a country to certain privileges or benefits regardless of their sex, tribe, or religion. These privileges could include access to education, healthcare, employment, and other social services provided by the government. The concept of rights is often enshrined in a country's constitution, which serves as a legal framework for the protection of citizens' rights and freedoms.

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Mass illiteracy hinders the establishment of a representative government in a state. This is because illiterate people may not have the ability to understand the complexities of governance and may not be able to make informed choices in elections. In addition, illiteracy may lead to a lack of civic education, which is essential for citizens to understand their rights and responsibilities in a democratic society. This can make it difficult for them to participate in the democratic process, including voting, and can result in the election of incompetent or corrupt officials who do not represent the people's interests.

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The Commonwealth of Nations was originally made up of independent nations formerly under the British Empire. It was established in 1931 with the signing of the Statute of Westminster, which granted self-governance and independence to Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. Over time, more countries gained independence from Britain and joined the Commonwealth, making it a voluntary association of 54 member countries, most of which are former British colonies or territories. The Commonwealth promotes cooperation, democracy, human rights, and economic development among its members.

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For an election to be fair and free, the Electoral Commission must be independent of other institutions of government. This means that the commission must not be influenced or controlled by any political party or individual in government. An independent electoral commission is one that is free to make its own decisions without fear of reprisals or intimidation. This is important because it ensures that the electoral process is conducted in a transparent, impartial and non-partisan manner, and that all eligible voters are able to participate freely in the process without any form of discrimination or harassment. An independent electoral commission also helps to ensure that the results of the election are credible and accepted by all stakeholders, thereby promoting peace, stability and democracy.

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A minister controls public corporation by ensuring the effective administration of the corporation. In many countries, public corporations are established by the government to provide specific goods or services to the public, such as transportation, energy, or communication. These corporations are usually created by legislation and are subject to the oversight of a government ministry or department. The minister responsible for the public corporation is typically appointed by the government and is accountable to the public for the performance of the corporation. The minister's role is to ensure that the corporation is managed effectively, efficiently, and in accordance with the public interest. To do this, the minister may establish policies, set targets, and provide guidance and direction to the corporation's management. The minister may also be responsible for appointing the corporation's board of directors, who are responsible for overseeing the corporation's day-to-day operations. Overall, the minister's role is to ensure that the public corporation is managed effectively and that it is providing the goods or services that the public needs in a cost-effective and efficient manner.

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Germany was not instrumental to the formation of the United Nations Organization (UNO). The UNO was formed after World War II to promote international cooperation and prevent future wars. The main countries that were instrumental to its formation were the United States of America, Britain, and the USSR. They were the three major Allied powers during the war and played a significant role in negotiating and drafting the UN Charter. Germany, on the other hand, was a defeated power and did not participate in the formation of the UNO.

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The anonymity of a civil servant means that he/she receives neither praise nor blame publicly. This means that their actions or decisions are not made public, and they are not personally credited for their successes nor publicly criticized for their failures. This allows them to work impartially and objectively in serving the government and the public interest. It also protects them from political pressure or personal attacks, allowing them to make decisions based solely on their professional judgment and expertise.

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Fascism is an authoritarian system of government. In a fascist system, power is concentrated in the hands of a single ruler or party, who exercise total control over society, the economy, and individual freedoms. The government suppresses dissent and opposition, and uses propaganda and force to maintain its power. Therefore, the correct answer is option B, Fascism.

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Decentralization is a common feature of a federal system of government. In a federal system of government, power is shared between the central government and the constituent units, which can be states or provinces. Decentralization is the transfer of power from the central government to the constituent units. This allows for greater autonomy and decision-making power at the local level. Decentralization can take many forms, including the devolution of administrative, political, and fiscal powers. In contrast, in a unitary system of government, power is concentrated in the central government and there is no sharing of power with the constituent units.

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A flexible constitution can easily be amended by a simple majority. This means that the constitution can be adapted to meet the changing needs of the society without requiring an extensive and time-consuming process. It also allows for easier accommodation of new ideas and innovations, making it more adaptable to new circumstances. This can promote stability in the governance of a country by providing a means to make necessary changes quickly and efficiently. However, some argue that this flexibility can lead to abuse and manipulation by those in power who may seek to change the constitution to consolidate their own power, leading to dictatorship or autocracy.

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The civil service is responsible for the implementation of policies. The civil service is a permanent body of government employees who work in various government departments and agencies. Their primary role is to implement government policies and programs as directed by elected officials or appointed ministers. Civil servants are responsible for carrying out tasks such as drafting policies, managing government programs, overseeing public services, and providing advice to elected officials or appointed ministers. They play a crucial role in ensuring that the government delivers services and programs to the citizens efficiently and effectively. The civil service is a non-partisan body and operates independently of the political party in power. This ensures that policies are implemented impartially and that the government functions smoothly, regardless of which political party is in power. In summary, the civil service is responsible for the implementation of policies. They work independently of political parties and provide crucial support to elected officials and appointed ministers in delivering government services and programs to citizens.

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Public corporations are established to provide essential services and utilities to the public at minimal cost. They are owned and controlled by the government, and their primary objective is to serve the public interest rather than to make a profit. Examples of public corporations include water boards, electricity companies, transportation agencies, and public hospitals. They are created to ensure that these essential services are available to the public and that they are affordable and accessible to all. Public corporations play a vital role in the development and maintenance of a country's infrastructure and in promoting the welfare of its citizens.

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A political party can contest and win a widely accepted election if it has a broad-based membership. This means that the party has support from a wide range of individuals and groups with different backgrounds, interests and opinions. A broad-based membership enables a political party to have a diverse range of candidates and policies that appeal to different sections of the electorate. It also means that the party is more likely to have a strong presence across different regions and demographic groups, making it easier to mobilize voters and win elections. This is a key factor in ensuring that the election is widely accepted, as it demonstrates that the party has a genuine mandate from the people.

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The writ of Habeas corpus is a judicial order that requires a detained person to be brought before a judge. This order is issued to ensure that a person who has been detained or imprisoned is not being held unlawfully, and to provide a mechanism for challenging their detention. The writ of Habeas corpus is a fundamental legal right that protects individuals from arbitrary detention or imprisonment, and is an important safeguard against government abuse of power.

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An absolute monarch is a ruler who wields supreme power in a state. This means that the monarch has unchecked power and authority over the government and its citizens. The monarch's power is not limited by a constitution, laws, or other forms of checks and balances. Therefore, an absolute monarch has the final say in all matters of governance, including making laws, enforcing laws, and interpreting laws. Unlike in a democratic system, the monarch is not elected by the people or representatives of the people, and there is no definite tenure of office. The monarch holds the position until they die, abdicate, or are overthrown.

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Local governments are created to bring the government closer to the people. They are an essential level of government that operates within a specific geographic area, such as a city or town. The primary purpose of local governments is to provide essential services to the people living in that area, such as roads, water, sewage, public health, education, and public safety. Local governments are responsible for meeting the needs of their communities and addressing the unique challenges faced by the people living in that area. They are usually better equipped to handle local issues than a centralized government since they have a better understanding of the community's needs and can respond more quickly to them. Local governments also play an important role in promoting democracy and citizen participation in government. They provide a platform for citizens to participate in decision-making processes that affect their lives, such as zoning laws, land-use regulations, and other local policies. In summary, local governments are created to bring government closer to the people, provide essential services, and promote democracy and citizen participation. They are an essential component of a functioning government system and help ensure that the needs of local communities are met.

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A pressure group is an association whose ultimate aim is to influence government policies. Pressure groups are also known as interest groups or lobby groups. They are groups of like-minded individuals who come together to influence government decisions in a particular area of interest, such as environmental protection, human rights, or business interests. Pressure groups use various tactics to influence government policies, including lobbying, advocacy, and public campaigns. Unlike political parties, pressure groups do not seek to win elections or hold public office, but instead focus on influencing policies and decisions from outside the government.

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In a presidential system of government, the president can constitutionally be removed from office through impeachment. Impeachment is a process where a president can be accused of committing serious offenses such as high crimes and misdemeanors, which are often defined as abuses of power or serious breaches of public trust. The process involves a trial conducted by the legislature, where the president is given an opportunity to defend himself against the charges. If found guilty, the president may be removed from office, and in some cases, barred from holding any public office in the future. Impeachment is a constitutional process designed to ensure that the president remains accountable to the people and the constitution. It is important to note that in some countries, the president can also be removed through a vote of no confidence, but this is not a constitutional provision in all presidential systems of government.

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The French policy of assimilation was replaced by the policy of association. The policy of assimilation was introduced by the French in their colonies with the aim of making the colonies more French by imposing the French language, culture, and institutions on the colonies. However, this policy was met with resistance from the colonies who felt their own culture and identity was being suppressed. In response, the French introduced the policy of association which recognized the distinct cultures and institutions of the colonies and allowed for greater self-rule and autonomy while still maintaining ties to France.

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Elections are conducted to make the people choose their leaders. They provide an opportunity for citizens to participate in the selection of their representatives at different levels of government. Elections give citizens a voice in governance by allowing them to choose who they want to represent them in various political offices. Through the election process, citizens have the power to vote out leaders who are not performing well and replace them with those who they believe will better represent their interests. Thus, elections are an essential aspect of democracy and play a crucial role in ensuring that citizens have a say in the governance of their country.

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According to Charles Montesquieu, the theory of separation of powers is to prevent arbitrariness. Montesquieu was a French philosopher who wrote extensively on the idea of separation of powers, which suggests that the powers of government should be divided into different branches, such as the legislative, executive, and judiciary, each with its own distinct powers and responsibilities. The theory of separation of powers is designed to prevent the concentration of power in any one branch of government, which can lead to arbitrary rule, or the abuse of power. By separating the powers of government into different branches, each with its own independent authority, the system of checks and balances can be maintained. The legislative branch of government is responsible for making laws, the executive branch is responsible for enforcing laws, and the judiciary branch is responsible for interpreting laws. By ensuring that each branch of government has its own distinct powers and responsibilities, the theory of separation of powers prevents any one branch from becoming too powerful or dominant. In summary, the theory of separation of powers, according to Montesquieu, is to prevent arbitrariness by dividing the powers of government into different branches, each with its own distinct powers and responsibilities, and ensuring that no one branch becomes too powerful or dominant.

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One criticism leveled against the pre-independence political parties in West Africa was that some of them were not national in outlook. This means that some of the parties were only concerned with the interests of a particular ethnic group or region, rather than the interests of the entire nation. This was seen as a hindrance to the development of a united and cohesive national identity, and to the establishment of a strong and effective government capable of representing and serving the interests of all citizens.

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A constitution that requires a complicated procedure for its amendment is called "rigid." A rigid constitution is difficult to amend, as it requires a special process that is more complicated than the regular legislative process. This is often done to ensure that the basic principles and values of the constitution are not easily altered by a simple majority vote. It typically requires a higher threshold of support, such as a two-thirds majority vote or the approval of a special constitutional convention, which helps to prevent frequent and hasty changes to the fundamental law of the land.

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Only citizens can vote in periodic elections. This is because citizens are considered to have a stake in the country's governance and are therefore granted the right to choose their leaders through the electoral process. Minors (people below the age of majority), aliens (people who are not citizens of the country), and lunatics (people who are mentally incapacitated) are not granted the right to vote in periodic elections as they may not have the capacity or the necessary qualifications to make informed decisions in the best interest of the country.

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The answer is "schools." Political parties generally do not use schools as a means of reaching the populace because schools are meant for education and learning, and political parties should not interfere with the academic environment. Political parties typically use posters, newspapers, the internet, and other forms of media to reach the populace and disseminate information about their policies and candidates. They may also hold rallies, debates, and town hall meetings to engage with voters directly. However, using schools for political campaigns would be inappropriate and could interfere with the educational process.

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As an academic field, the study of government does not include ecological interaction. The study of government typically focuses on topics such as political institutions, public policy, political behavior, and the distribution of power in society. Political economy, comparative politics, and public administration are all subfields within the broader study of government that examine various aspects of political systems, such as the relationship between politics and the economy, the differences and similarities between different political systems, and the ways in which public policies are implemented. Ecological interaction, on the other hand, is a field of study that focuses on the relationships between organisms and their environment. While there may be some overlap between the study of government and ecological interaction in areas such as environmental policy, ecological interaction is not traditionally considered a subfield of government or political science. In summary, the study of government does not include ecological interaction, as it is a separate field of study that focuses on the relationships between organisms and their environment.

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A community without government will likely experience insecurity, lawlessness, and political anarchy because there is no authority to enforce law and order. However, planned development is not typically experienced because there is no centralized body to coordinate and implement development programs. Therefore, the answer is "planned development."

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(a) Meaning of National Interest

National interest refers to the sum total of the fundamental goals, values, aspirations and objectives that a country seeks to protect and promote in its dealings with other states. It covers the preservation of the nation's security, sovereignty, territorial integrity, economic well-being and prestige. National interest guides the making and conduct of a country's foreign policy.

(b) Objectives of Nigeria's foreign policy

1. Promotion of the national interest of Nigeria, including the protection of her sovereignty, territorial integrity and the welfare of her citizens.
2. Promotion of African unity and total liberation of Africa from colonialism and racism (Africa as the centrepiece of Nigeria's foreign policy).
3. Promotion of international peace, security and cooperation through active membership of bodies such as the United Nations and the African Union.
4. Fostering good neighbourliness and friendly relations with other states, based on the principles of non-interference in the internal affairs of others and peaceful settlement of disputes.

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(a) Three former French colonies in West Africa

1. Senegal
2. Ivory Coast (Cote d'Ivoire)
3. Guinea

(Others include Mali, Niger, Dahomey/Benin, Upper Volta/Burkina Faso, Togo and Mauritania.)

(b) Qualifications for the assimilation of an indigenous African into French citizenship

Under the French policy of assimilation, an African could become a French citizen if he satisfied the following conditions.

1. Ability to speak and write the French language fluently.
2. Adoption of the French way of life and culture, abandoning indigenous customs, and profession of Christianity in place of traditional religion.
3. Rendering of service to France, for example serving in the French army or the colonial administration for a stipulated number of years.
4. Attainment of a certain level of Western education and being of good character with no criminal record.
5. A regular means of livelihood (gainful employment) and being of a prescribed minimum age (usually adulthood).

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Features of Igbo traditional societies

The pre-colonial Igbo of south-eastern Nigeria operated a decentralised, republican political system without a central king.

1. Absence of a centralised authority (acephalous/segmentary system): There was no paramount king ruling over all the Igbo; each village or town was largely autonomous and self-governing.
2. Direct/participatory democracy: Decisions were taken at village assemblies where adult males gathered to discuss and reach consensus on matters affecting the community.
3. Rule by council of elders (Amala/Oha) and titled men: Elders, family heads and holders of titles such as the Ozo exercised authority and settled disputes.
4. Age-grade system: Age grades performed important administrative, defensive and developmental functions such as maintaining order, executing public works and defending the community.
5. Kinship and lineage organisation: Society was built around families and lineages (Umunna), and the extended family formed the basic political and social unit.
6. Role of religion and secret societies: Oracles, priests and secret societies (such as the Ekpe and masquerade cults) helped to enforce laws, morality and social control.

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In a presidential system of government, a proposed law (a bill) must pass through several stages before it becomes law. The main processes are:

1. First reading: the bill is formally introduced in the legislature (for example, in the House of Representatives or Senate). Only the title is read; there is no debate at this stage.
2. Second reading: the general principles and merits of the bill are debated by the members. If the bill is accepted in principle, it is passed on for detailed examination.
3. Committee stage: the bill is referred to a relevant committee, which examines it clause by clause, may hold public hearings, and makes amendments before reporting back to the house.
4. Report stage and third reading: the committee reports its findings and amendments to the whole house; the amended bill is considered, debated finally and voted upon. If passed, it goes to the other chamber (in a bicameral legislature) to go through the same stages, and any differences are harmonised by a conference committee.
5. Presidential assent: once passed by the legislature, the bill is sent to the President, who signs it into law. If the President withholds assent (vetoes it), the legislature may still pass it into law by overriding the veto with the required (usually two-thirds) majority of both houses.

After assent, the new law is published in the official gazette and becomes operative.

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(a) Aims and objectives of a political party such as the NNP

Like every political party, the NNP was formed principally to win and control governmental power. Its aims and objectives included the following.

1. To capture political power: to win elections and form the government so as to implement its programmes.
2. To promote national unity and integration: to bring together people of different backgrounds under a common political platform and ideology.
3. To pursue the welfare and development of the people: to provide social amenities, education, employment and improved living standards through its policies.

(b) Sources of finance of the party

1. Membership dues, registration fees and donations from party members and supporters.
2. Contributions and levies from party members holding elective or appointive offices, and gifts from wealthy individuals, sympathisers and organisations.

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Roles of minority (opposition) parties in a multiparty democracy

Minority parties are political parties that do not control the government but participate in the democratic process. They perform vital roles that keep democracy healthy.

1. Constructive criticism of government: They scrutinise government policies and programmes, exposing weaknesses and offering alternative ideas, thereby checking abuse of power.
2. Acting as a government-in-waiting: They present themselves as a credible alternative, ready to take over power through elections should the ruling party fail or lose an election.
3. Protection of citizens' rights: They speak out against oppressive or unjust actions of the ruling party and defend the fundamental rights and interests of the people.
4. Political education and mobilisation: Through rallies, debates and manifestos, they enlighten citizens on political issues and encourage participation in the political process.
5. Ensuring accountability and transparency: By demanding explanations and questioning government spending and decisions, they compel the ruling party to govern responsibly.
6. Promoting national unity and stability: Where minority parties channel grievances through lawful, constitutional means, they help to prevent violence and preserve orderly government.

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(a) What is fascism?

Fascism is a system of government and a political ideology that is authoritarian, totalitarian and intensely nationalistic. It places the state above the individual, glorifies the nation and a single all-powerful leader, and rejects democracy, liberalism and communism. It was associated with Benito Mussolini in Italy and Adolf Hitler (in its Nazi form) in Germany between the two World Wars. Under fascism, the state controls all aspects of national life and demands total loyalty and obedience from the people.

(b) Four features of fascism

1. Totalitarian one-party rule: only one political party is allowed, and it controls the whole apparatus of the state; opposition parties are banned.
2. Supremacy of the state over the individual: the interest of the state is supreme and the individual exists to serve the state, so personal rights and freedoms are suppressed.
3. Extreme nationalism and militarism: fascism glorifies the nation and race, promotes aggressive nationalism, and relies heavily on the military and the readiness for war.
4. Dictatorship of an all-powerful leader: power is concentrated in the hands of a single supreme leader (such as Mussolini or Hitler) whose authority is absolute and unquestioned.

Other features include the use of force, terror and secret police to crush opposition, strict censorship and control of information, and the rejection of democracy and equality.

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Factors that can limit the independence of the judiciary

The independence of the judiciary means the ability of judges to decide cases impartially, free from control or pressure by any other person or arm of government. Several factors can undermine this independence.

1. Method of appointment of judges: Where judges are appointed solely by the executive or on the basis of political loyalty rather than merit, they may feel indebted to those who appointed them and may deliver judgments that favour the appointing authority.
2. Executive control over remuneration and conditions of service: If the salaries, allowances and welfare of judges are determined and paid at the discretion of the executive rather than charged to a consolidated fund, judges can be intimidated through the threat of poor pay or withheld benefits.
3. Insecurity of tenure: Where judges can be removed, suspended or transferred easily and without due process by the executive or legislature, they become fearful and reluctant to give judgments against the government.
4. Corruption and bribery: When judges accept bribes or gratification from litigants, their impartiality is compromised and justice is sold to the highest bidder rather than decided on the merits of the case.
5. Executive interference and disobedience of court orders: Direct pressure on judges, threats, and the refusal of the executive to obey or enforce court judgments weaken the authority and independence of the courts.
6. Political and public opinion pressure: Fear of criticism from powerful politicians, the press or ethnic and religious groups may push judges to decide cases in a way that pleases such interests rather than according to law.

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Roles of the mass media in nation building

The mass media (newspapers, radio, television, internet) are channels through which information reaches large numbers of people. They contribute to nation building in the following ways.

1. Dissemination of information: The media inform citizens about government policies, programmes, events and developments, keeping the nation aware of what is happening.
2. Political education and enlightenment: They educate citizens on their rights, duties and civic responsibilities, and explain the workings of government, thereby producing an informed citizenry.
3. Promotion of national unity and integration: By highlighting shared values and covering all sections of the country, the media help to bind different ethnic and religious groups into one nation.
4. Watchdog role and check on government: The media expose corruption, abuse of office and maladministration, thereby holding leaders accountable and promoting good governance.
5. Mobilisation for development: They rouse citizens to participate in development projects, campaigns (such as health, agriculture and education programmes) and nation-building efforts.
6. Shaping and reflecting public opinion: The media provide a platform through which citizens express their views and government gauges the feelings of the people.

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Positive effects of colonialism on West Africa

1. Introduction of Western education: Schools and colleges were established, producing literate Africans who later became teachers, administrators and nationalist leaders.
2. Development of infrastructure: Roads, railways, seaports, bridges and telecommunication facilities were built, opening up the interior and easing movement and trade.
3. Introduction of a modern money economy: Currency, banking and wage employment replaced trade by barter, promoting commerce and a cash economy.
4. Establishment of modern political and administrative institutions: Structures such as the civil service, courts, legislative councils and organised government were introduced and later inherited at independence.
5. Provision of modern health and social services: Hospitals, dispensaries and improved medicine helped to control diseases and raise the standard of living.
6. Promotion of unity and larger political units: Different ethnic groups were brought together under single administrations, laying the foundation for modern nation-states.