WAEC SSCE - Agricultural Science - 1994

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The assistance given to farmers by the government in the form of a reduction in price is generally referred to as a subsidy. A subsidy is a form of financial assistance given by the government to support a particular activity or industry, in this case, agricultural production. In agriculture, subsidies are given to farmers to help them reduce their production costs by providing financial support for inputs like fertilizers, seeds, and pesticides. This helps farmers to increase their yields and profits, which in turn leads to an increase in the supply of food and a reduction in the price of food in the market. Moreover, subsidies encourage farmers to adopt modern technology and improve their farming practices. By reducing the cost of inputs, farmers can afford to invest in new equipment and technologies that improve the efficiency of their farming operations. In summary, a subsidy is the assistance given to farmers by the government in the form of a reduction in price. It is a form of financial support that helps farmers to increase their production and income, adopt modern technologies and practices, and ultimately contributes to an increase in the supply of food and a reduction in the price of food in the market.

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Land is considered to be an essential factor in agricultural production because it is the natural resource where crop, fisheries, and livestock production take place. Agriculture involves the cultivation of crops, rearing of livestock, and fish farming, all of which are carried out on land. Agricultural land provides a habitat for crops and animals to grow and reproduce. Moreover, agricultural production cannot take place without land, as other factors of production such as labor, capital, and technology are useless without land. Although other resources can be substituted, land cannot be increased in quantity as it is a finite resource. Hence, land is a crucial resource for agricultural production and cannot be overlooked. In summary, land is an essential factor in agricultural production because it provides a physical space for the production of crops, fisheries, and livestock. Without land, agricultural production cannot take place, and other resources are rendered useless.

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The reason for smoking fish is to preserve it. Smoking is a traditional method of preserving fish that has been used for centuries. The process of smoking involves exposing the fish to smoke produced by burning wood or other materials. This smoke contains chemicals that inhibit the growth of bacteria and other microorganisms that cause spoilage. As a result, the fish can be stored for longer periods of time without refrigeration or other forms of preservation. Smoking also imparts a distinct flavor to the fish that is often considered desirable. The smoke and heat from the smoking process cause the fish to become dehydrated and partially cooked, which can enhance its flavor and texture. Therefore, the reason for smoking fish is to preserve it and enhance its flavor.

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The option that does not improve agricultural production in West Africa is "continued adoption of the communal land holding system". The communal land holding system refers to a traditional land tenure system in which land is owned and managed by a community rather than individual landowners. However, this system has been identified as a major constraint to agricultural development in West Africa because it limits individual farmers' incentives to invest in their land and improve their productivity. On the other hand, the other options listed can improve agricultural production in West Africa. The ability of farmers to purchase modern farm implements can help to increase efficiency and productivity on the farm. Expansive irrigation of farmlands can help to mitigate the effects of drought and increase crop yields. Adoption and proper application of tested findings of agricultural research can help farmers to adopt improved practices and technologies that can enhance their productivity. Adequate supply of improved seeds and livestock to farmers can help to increase crop and livestock yields, leading to improved livelihoods and food security. Therefore, continued adoption of the communal land holding system is the option that does not improve agricultural production in West Africa.

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The statement that is not correct is "finisher ration is for feeding chicks from day-old to market size." Finisher ration is not used to feed chicks from day-old to market size. Instead, it is used to feed growing birds that are close to reaching their market size or maturity. Finisher ration is typically fed to broilers after they have been on a starter and grower ration. Finisher ration is formulated with a lower protein content and higher energy content compared to starter and grower rations. This helps the birds to gain weight and reach their market size more efficiently. The duration of feeding finisher ration depends on the breed of bird and the market weight they are being raised for. In summary, finisher ration is not used to feed chicks from day-old to market size, but instead is used to feed growing birds that are nearing their market weight or maturity.

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A balanced diet is a meal that contains all the essential nutrients required by the body in the right proportions. These nutrients include carbohydrates, proteins, fats and oils, minerals and vitamins. Sucrose, on the other hand, is a type of sugar that is not considered an essential nutrient for the body. Therefore, the component of a balanced diet that is not listed above is sucrose.

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Natural immunity against diseases is conferred on the newly born animal through feeding with colostrum. Colostrum is the first milk produced by female mammals immediately after giving birth. It contains high levels of antibodies, which are proteins that fight against diseases and infections. When a newborn animal drinks colostrum, the antibodies in the colostrum are absorbed into its bloodstream, providing it with natural immunity against a wide range of diseases. This immunity is temporary and gradually fades away over time, but it is crucial in protecting the animal during its early life. Vaccination, sanitation, and administration of antibiotics and drugs can also help to protect animals against diseases, but they do not confer natural immunity like colostrum does.

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Cassava is the crop that is tolerant to both poor and rich friable soils. Cassava is a hardy crop that can grow well in poor soils with low nutrient levels as well as in rich, fertile soils. It is also tolerant to drought and can survive in areas with irregular rainfall patterns. Because of its ability to grow in diverse soil conditions, cassava is an important food crop in many developing countries.

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One primary product of forest trees is timber, which is also known as wood or lumber. Timber is the wood that is harvested from trees and used for construction, furniture, and many other purposes. After the trees are harvested, they are cut into different sizes and shapes, depending on their intended use. For example, larger trees can be used for building homes and furniture, while smaller trees can be used for paper and other products. While paper, particle board, cardboard, and pulp can all be made from wood, they are not considered primary products of forest trees because they require additional processing and manufacturing steps to turn the wood into these products. In contrast, timber is the raw product that comes directly from the trees and can be used for many different purposes.

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The main purpose of including leguminous crops in pastures is to serve as a source of proteins. Leguminous crops are known to have high protein content and are commonly used as a source of protein for livestock in pastures. Leguminous crops such as alfalfa, clover, and soybean are nitrogen-fixing plants that can help improve soil fertility and provide high-quality protein for grazing animals. Protein is an essential nutrient for animal growth and development, and including leguminous crops in pastures can help ensure that animals have access to this important nutrient.

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Using an N'dama bull to mate with a Muturu cow is an example of cross-breeding. Cross-breeding involves mating two different breeds of animals to produce offspring with desirable traits from both breeds. In this case, the N'dama bull and Muturu cow are two different breeds of cattle. By mating them, the offspring would have characteristics of both breeds, such as disease resistance from the N'dama and heat tolerance from the Muturu. In contrast, inbreeding involves mating closely related individuals, which can lead to an increased risk of genetic defects and other problems. Selection involves choosing individuals with desirable traits to breed, while introduction involves bringing in new breeds of animals to a population. Artificial insemination involves using technology to fertilize eggs outside of the animal's body and then implanting them into the female animal.

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Prolonged application of ammonium sulphate fertilizer on a given soil can lead to an increase in soil acidity. This is because ammonium sulphate fertilizer contains ammonium ions that can be converted to nitrate by soil bacteria. During this process, hydrogen ions are released, leading to an increase in soil acidity. This increased acidity can damage soil structure and reduce the availability of nutrients for plants. Additionally, some crops may not grow well in acidic soil conditions. Therefore, it is important to carefully manage the application of ammonium sulphate fertilizer to prevent negative effects on soil quality.

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The application of pressure on a ring inserted through the nostril of a bull is known as bull nose ringing. It is believed to have a calming effect on the bull, making it more manageable and easier to handle. The ring applies pressure on sensitive nerves in the nostril, which helps to control the bull's movements and reduces its resistance. This makes it easier for farmers to handle and transport the animal. The practice is not without controversy, however, as some animal welfare groups argue that it can cause unnecessary pain and discomfort to the bull.

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Electricity can be used as a source of power for the following farm operations: - processing: such as grinding, milling, and blending of agricultural products - storage: such as cooling, drying, and preservation of crops - extraction: such as pressing of oil from seeds or nuts. Therefore, the set of farm operations that can use electricity as a source of power is "processing, storage and extraction."

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The botanical name for guinea grass is "Panicum maximum". Therefore, the option that represents the botanical name for guinea grass is "panicum maximum". Guinea grass is a perennial grass that is commonly grown for pasture and hay production in many tropical and subtropical regions of the world. It is a tall grass with long leaves and has a high tolerance for drought and heavy grazing pressure.

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The National Tree-planting campaign in Nigeria is an example of afforestation. Afforestation is the process of establishing a forest, or stand of trees, in an area where there was no forest. The National Tree-planting campaign aims to increase the country's forest cover and combat deforestation, soil erosion, and climate change. It involves planting new trees and protecting existing forests, and it is an effort towards afforestation.

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The correct option is (D) andropogon. Andropogon is not a pasture legume but a grass species. Pasture legumes are important forage crops that are high in protein, digestibility, and minerals and help to improve soil fertility. Examples of pasture legumes include pueraria, calopogonium, centrosema, and stylosanthes.

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A moistened soil sample that can be moulded into a smooth continuous ring is a characteristic of a soil with a significant clay content. This is because soils with higher clay content have the ability to hold water and maintain soil structure even when moistened. Clay particles are very small and have a large surface area, so they can hold a lot of water and nutrients. Therefore, a soil with a high clay content will feel sticky when wet and can be easily moulded, indicating its cohesive properties. So, the correct option is heavy clay.

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Nutritional deficiency diseases in livestock are caused by a lack of one or more essential nutrients in the diet, leading to health problems and decreased productivity. Among the options provided, oesteomalacia is the nutritional deficiency disease of livestock caused by a lack of calcium and/or phosphorus in their diet, leading to softening and weakening of bones, lameness, and decreased milk production in dairy animals.

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Coal is an example of a sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rocks are formed from the accumulation of sediments or organic matter. Coal is formed from the accumulation of dead plant material in swamps and marshes. Over time, the weight of the sediment on top of the plant material causes it to be compacted and heated, eventually forming coal.

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The primary product of ginger is the rhizome. Ginger is a flowering plant whose underground stem or rhizome is widely used as a spice and a folk medicine. The rhizome is the part of the ginger plant that is harvested and used in cooking or for its medicinal properties. Ginger rhizomes are usually peeled and grated, sliced, or ground to be used in various dishes or as a herbal remedy for different ailments.

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Land use is the way in which human beings use land for various purposes such as agriculture, forestry, mining, settlement, recreation, among others. Several factors influence land use, including population density, population growth, climatic conditions, topography, and fallowing. However, the question asks for the factor that does not influence land use. Therefore, the answer would be "fallowing," which is a land management practice that involves leaving the land uncultivated for some time to allow it to regenerate and improve its fertility. Fallowing is not an influence on land use but rather a practice that farmers use to improve soil fertility and manage land.

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The answer to this question is that mechanization would remain uneconomical in West Africa as long as farmers are small and scattered. This is because mechanization requires a certain level of scale to be economical, and small, scattered farms make it difficult to achieve that scale. Additionally, the cost of acquiring and maintaining machinery may be too high for individual smallholder farmers.

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The option that is not correct about market in agriculture is "a place for social activities". While it is true that markets may provide opportunities for social interactions, the primary purpose of a market is to facilitate buying and selling activities. Markets in agriculture can be physical or virtual and may involve various types of transactions, including spot sales, forward contracts, and futures contracts. The market brings together buyers and sellers, who negotiate prices and quantities, and determine the terms of the transaction. In this way, markets play an important role in the economy by facilitating the exchange of goods and services between buyers and sellers.

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The correct answer is: egg-nymph-adult. Locusts undergo incomplete metamorphosis, which means that they do not have a pupal stage. Instead, they go through three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The life cycle of a locust begins when a female locust lays her eggs in soil. After a period of incubation, the eggs hatch into nymphs, which look like small versions of adult locusts but lack wings. Nymphs go through several molts as they grow and develop, becoming larger and more mature with each molt. Eventually, they reach adulthood and develop wings that enable them to fly and migrate long distances in search of food and suitable breeding sites. The adult stage is the final stage of the locust life cycle, during which time the insects mate, lay eggs, and die. Depending on environmental conditions, the entire life cycle of a locust can take anywhere from several weeks to several months.

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The farm animal whose skin or hide cannot be used for leather production is the chicken. This is because the skin of a chicken is too thin and not suitable for leather production, unlike the skin of other animals such as goats, sheep, cattle, and pigs. While chickens are typically raised for their meat and eggs, their skin is not a viable source for leather production.

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The response of crops to day-length is referred to as photoperiodism. Photoperiodism is the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night. In plants, it influences flowering, dormancy, and other developmental processes. It is important in agriculture as it helps determine the appropriate timing for planting and harvesting of crops.

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Shellers are used to remove grains from cobs. This is usually done in crops such as maize, where the kernels are tightly attached to the cob. The process involves passing the maize cob through the shellers, which use a combination of mechanical and/or pneumatic force to separate the grains from the cob. The grains are then collected while the cobs are discarded as waste.

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The plant part or modification that is not suitable for propagation of pastures is leaves. Leaves are not typically used for propagation of pastures because they do not contain the necessary structures for growth and development into a new plant. While leaves do play an important role in photosynthesis and nutrient storage, they are not able to develop into a new plant on their own. Stem cuttings, seeds, stolons, and rhizomes are all suitable for propagation of pastures. Stem cuttings can be taken from mature plants and rooted to form new plants. Seeds can be collected from mature plants and planted to produce new plants. Stolons and rhizomes are specialized stem structures that allow the plant to spread and form new shoots, making them ideal for propagation. In summary, leaves are not suitable for propagation of pastures, while stem cuttings, seeds, stolons, and rhizomes are all commonly used for this purpose.

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Metamorphic rocks are formed through chemical changes caused by heat and pressure. When rocks are subjected to high temperatures and pressures, the minerals and textures within them can change. This process is called metamorphism. Metamorphic rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks, which can be igneous, sedimentary, or even other metamorphic rocks. During metamorphism, the rocks are subjected to intense heat and pressure, which can cause the minerals in the rock to change. This can result in changes to the color, texture, and overall appearance of the rock. Some common examples of metamorphic rocks include marble, slate, and gneiss. In contrast, the other options listed involve different processes for rock formation. Physical disintegration of igneous rocks and alternative layering of particles of sedimentary and igneous rocks are processes involved in the formation of sedimentary rocks, while the combination of igneous and sedimentary rocks can result in the formation of hybrid rocks known as igneous-sedimentary rocks. Biological change of original rock, on the other hand, is not a common process in rock formation.

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A fungicide is important in maize production because it assists in the control of corn smut. Fungicides are chemicals used to control fungal diseases, and corn smut is a common fungal disease that affects maize crops. It can reduce the yield and quality of the maize produced. Therefore, applying a fungicide can help to prevent or control the spread of the disease and increase crop yield. However, fungicides may not be effective against other pests such as stem borers or mammals.

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The damage to the stem of maize plants resulting in hollowness and lodging is most likely caused by stem borers. Stem borers are insects that bore into the stem of the plant and feed on the inner tissues, leading to hollowness and weakness of the stem. As a result, the stem is unable to support the weight of the plant, causing lodging. This is a common problem in maize production and can significantly reduce yields if not controlled.

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Parturition refers to the process of giving birth in animals. There are several signs that indicate that an animal is approaching parturition. However, one of the options listed is not a sign of approaching parturition. 1. Preparation of nests by the dam: Some animals, such as rabbits and rodents, will prepare a nest for their young before giving birth. This behavior is an indication that parturition is imminent. 2. Swelling of the vulva: The vulva is the external opening of the reproductive tract in female animals. As parturition approaches, the vulva may become swollen and more prominent. 3. Enlargement of the mammary glands: The mammary glands in female animals produce milk for their young. As parturition approaches, the mammary glands may become enlarged and begin to produce colostrum, a nutrient-rich fluid that provides essential antibodies to the newborn. 4. Mounting of other animals: The mounting behavior in animals, such as horses or cows, is an indication that they are in heat and ready for breeding. This behavior is not a sign of approaching parturition. 5. Loss of appetite: Some animals may experience a decrease in appetite as parturition approaches. This can be due to discomfort or changes in hormone levels. In conclusion, the sign that is not an indication of approaching parturition is mounting of other animals. The other signs listed, including preparation of nests, swelling of the vulva, enlargement of the mammary glands, and loss of appetite, can be useful in predicting when an animal is about to give birth.

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The planting depth of rice grain is about 2-4 cm. This means that when planting rice, the seeds should be buried in the soil at a depth of 2-4 cm. This is the recommended depth for optimum growth and development of rice plants. Planting at a depth that is too shallow or too deep can lead to poor germination and low yield. Therefore, it is important to ensure that the planting depth is appropriate when planting rice.

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Four climatic factors that affect agricultural production in Nigeria are:

1. Temperature: Temperature affects the growth and development of crops and livestock. High temperature can cause heat stress and reduce crop yield while low temperature can cause frost and harm livestock. Additionally, temperature influences the pests and diseases that affect crops and livestock.
2. Rainfall: Rainfall is critical to crop growth and development in Nigeria. The amount and distribution of rainfall determine the length of the growing season and crop yield. Excess rainfall can lead to flooding and soil erosion, while insufficient rainfall can cause drought and crop failure.
3. Humidity: Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air. High humidity can lead to the growth of fungi and bacteria, which can cause crop diseases. It can also cause heat stress in livestock. Low humidity can cause dehydration and reduced crop yield.
4. Wind: Wind affects agricultural production in Nigeria by carrying pollen for cross-pollination, dispersing seeds, and helping to dry out crops after rainfall. However, excessive wind can cause soil erosion, damage crops and structures, and lead to livestock stress.

In conclusion, these climatic factors can either support or inhibit agricultural production in Nigeria depending on the intensity, timing, and duration of their occurrence. Farmers need to adapt to these factors through the adoption of appropriate technologies and management practices to ensure sustainable agricultural production.

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(a) Land tenure system refers to the legal or customary framework that governs the ownership, use, and transfer of land. Four examples of land tenure systems include:

• Private land ownership
• Community land ownership
• State land ownership
• Leasehold land ownership

(b) (i) The Land Use Decree, also known as the Land Use Act, is a Nigerian law that was enacted in 1978. The decree seeks to centralize the ownership and control of land in Nigeria by vesting all land in the state governors, who hold the land in trust for the people. The decree requires that all land transactions be approved by the state government and prohibits the sale or transfer of land to non-Nigerians without government approval.

(ii) Two advantages of the Land Use Decree are that it has helped to simplify land ownership in Nigeria by providing a single legal framework for land administration and has enabled the government to acquire land for public use without facing legal challenges. Two disadvantages of the decree are that it has weakened the rights of individuals to own and control their land and has led to disputes over land ownership between the state government and communities.

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(a)

• Demand: Demand refers to the quantity of a good or service that consumers are willing and able to buy at a certain price and time. It is represented by a downward sloping curve that shows the relationship between price and quantity demanded.
• Supply: Supply refers to the quantity of a good or service that producers are willing and able to offer for sale at a certain price and time. It is represented by an upward sloping curve that shows the relationship between price and quantity supplied.
• Law of demand: The law of demand states that as the price of a good or service increases, the quantity demanded of that good or service decreases, all other things being equal.
• Law of supply: The law of supply states that as the price of a good or service increases, the quantity supplied of that good or service increases, all other things being equal.

(b)

The implications of demand and supply on agricultural production are significant.

• If there is high demand for a particular agricultural product, it may lead to an increase in the price of that product, which in turn can encourage farmers to produce more of that product in order to take advantage of the higher prices. On the other hand, if there is low demand for a product, it may lead to a decrease in price and a reduction in production.
• Similarly, if the supply of a particular agricultural product is low, it may lead to higher prices due to scarcity. This can encourage farmers to produce more of that product in order to take advantage of the higher prices. Conversely, if there is a surplus of a product, it may lead to a decrease in price and a reduction in production.
• In addition, changes in demand and supply can also lead to changes in the mix of agricultural products produced in a particular area. For example, if there is high demand for a certain type of crop or livestock, farmers may shift their production towards that product, potentially leading to a reduction in the production of other products.

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(a) Land is an essential resource for agricultural production. It is used for growing crops, raising livestock, and other agricultural activities. The quality and quantity of land available can have a significant impact on agricultural productivity. Land can vary in terms of soil type, climate, topography, and other factors, which can affect the types of crops that can be grown and the yields that can be achieved.

(b) Capital refers to the money and other resources that are used to support agricultural production. This can include investments in land, equipment, seeds, fertilizers, and other inputs. Access to capital is important for farmers to purchase the resources they need to produce crops or raise livestock. Without sufficient capital, farmers may struggle to acquire the necessary resources and their production may be limited.

(c) Labour refers to the physical work required for agricultural production. This can include tasks such as planting, harvesting, caring for livestock, and maintaining equipment. Labour can be provided by the farmer, family members, or hired workers. The amount and quality of labour available can impact agricultural productivity, and a lack of labour can limit the amount of land that can be effectively managed.

(d) The farm manager is responsible for overseeing the day-to-day operations of the farm. This includes planning and managing crop and livestock production, managing resources such as land and capital, and making decisions related to marketing and sales. A good farm manager must have knowledge of agriculture, business, and management, and be able to make informed decisions that balance the needs of the farm with the needs of the market.

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(a) Farm surveying is the process of measuring, mapping, and analyzing land in order to establish boundaries, determine topography, locate structures, and plan for future land use.

(b) (i) Six surveying instruments are:

• Theodolite
• Total station
• GPS receiver
• Electronic distance meter
• Automatic level
• Magnetic compass

(ii) Four surveying instruments and their short notes are:

1. Theodolite: A theodolite is a precision instrument used for measuring angles in both the horizontal and vertical planes. It consists of a telescope mounted on a tripod that can be rotated 360 degrees horizontally and 180 degrees vertically. The theodolite is used in farm surveying to measure angles and elevations for mapping and construction purposes.
2. Total station: A total station is an electronic device that combines a theodolite and an electronic distance meter (EDM). It can measure angles and distances to a target with high accuracy and can store the data collected for later analysis. The total station is commonly used in farm surveying to create topographic maps, establish boundaries, and measure distances.
3. GPS receiver: A GPS receiver is a device that receives signals from Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites to determine the receiver's location. It can provide accurate coordinates and elevations that can be used in farm surveying to create maps, locate structures, and track movement.
4. Electronic distance meter: An electronic distance meter (EDM) is a device that measures the distance between two points using electronic pulses or laser beams. It is commonly used in farm surveying to measure distances between points and create accurate maps.

These instruments are used in farm surveying to collect accurate data about the land, which can be used to make informed decisions about land use, planning, and development.

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a) Irrigation is the process of artificially providing water to plants or crops to help them grow and thrive.

b) Six sources of water for irrigation include:

1. Rivers
2. Lakes
3. Wells
4. Rainwater harvesting
5. Groundwater
6. Dams and reservoirs

c) Three reasons why irrigation schemes are necessary in Nigeria are:

1. To increase crop yields:
2. To mitigate the effects of drought:
3. To support agriculture:

d) Similarities between sprinkler and surface irrigation:

1. Both methods of irrigation deliver water to crops to help them grow and thrive.
2. Both methods require a reliable source of water to be effective.

Differences between sprinkler and surface irrigation:

1. Sprinkler irrigation involves spraying water over the crops, while surface irrigation involves flooding the fields with water.
2. Sprinkler irrigation is more efficient in terms of water use, as it delivers water directly to the plant roots. Surface irrigation can result in water loss due to evaporation and runoff.
3. Sprinkler irrigation is more expensive to install and maintain than surface irrigation.

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a) Natural grassland refers to a type of ecosystem dominated by grasses and other herbaceous plants that is found in regions where the climate and soil conditions are suitable for their growth. Natural grasslands can occur in a variety of environments, from arid deserts to humid tropical forests.

b) Five characteristics of natural grasslands include:

1. Dominance of grasses and other herbaceous plants
2. Seasonal growth patterns, with vegetation becoming dormant during periods of drought or low rainfall
3. Adaptation to fire and grazing, with some grass species being able to withstand or even benefit from these disturbances
4. Biodiversity, with many different plant and animal species coexisting in the same ecosystem
5. Vulnerability to environmental degradation, with natural grasslands being threatened by factors such as overgrazing, invasive species, and climate change

c) Four grasses commonly found in natural grasslands include:

1. Buffalograss
2. Blue grama
3. Prairie dropseed
4. Big bluestem

Three pasture legumes commonly found in natural grasslands include:

1. Alfalfa
2. Clover
3. Birdsfoot trefoil

These grasses and legumes are adapted to the environmental conditions of natural grasslands and play an important role in providing food and habitat for a variety of animals, from grazing herbivores to insects and birds.

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(a) Taungya system is an agroforestry practice in which farmers cultivate food crops in the understory of a forest plantation. It is a traditional system that originated in Southeast Asia and has been adopted in many parts of the world, including Nigeria.

(b) Five conditions that favour the practice of taungya system in Nigeria include:

• Availability of degraded forest lands
• High demand for food crops and forest products
• Shortage of arable land for farming
• Supportive government policies and incentives
• Availability of technical assistance and extension services

(c) Two advantages of the taungya system to farmers are that it provides them with access to land for crop cultivation and a source of income from both the crops and the forest products. Additionally, the system can help to reduce pressure on natural forests and promote reforestation.

Two advantages of the taungya system to foresters are that it provides an opportunity for forest plantation establishment and maintenance at a lower cost, as the farmers bear the cost of land preparation and maintenance. Additionally, the system can enhance the social and economic well-being of the local community, which can lead to improved forest management and conservation efforts.

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Ruminants are a group of mammals that have a specialized stomach with four compartments, which allows them to efficiently digest and extract nutrients from tough, fibrous plant material. One example of a ruminant is a cow.

The four compartments of a cow's stomach are the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum. When a cow ingests food, it goes through a series of steps in each of these compartments.

1. Rumen: The rumen is the largest compartment and contains billions of microorganisms that break down and ferment the ingested food. The food is mixed with saliva and forms a large bolus called the cud. The cow regurgitates the cud back into its mouth to chew it again, a process known as rumination.
2. Reticulum: The reticulum is a small compartment that helps sort and filter the contents of the rumen. It traps large objects like rocks or metal that the cow may have ingested.
3. Omasum: The omasum is a small compartment that helps to absorb water, electrolytes, and some nutrients from the ingested food.
4. Abomasum: The abomasum is the true stomach of the cow, where acid and digestive enzymes break down the food further. This compartment is similar to the stomach of monogastric animals like humans.

Once the food has been digested in the abomasum, it passes into the small intestine where further absorption of nutrients takes place. The undigested material then moves to the large intestine and finally the rectum where it is eliminated as feces.

In summary, the four compartments of a cow's stomach work together to efficiently break down and extract nutrients from tough, fibrous plant material. The process of rumination allows the cow to chew its food again, further breaking it down and allowing for better digestion.

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Egg formation in poultry starts with the release of a matured ovum or yolk from the hen's ovary. This ovum then moves to the oviduct, where it is surrounded by various layers of albumen or egg white, forming the egg's egg white part.

The ovum continues to move down the oviduct, where it then passes through a shell gland. Here, the eggshell forms around the egg white and encases the yolk. The shell is made up of calcium carbonate and provides a protective covering for the developing embryo.

Once the egg is fully formed, the hen lays it and the egg passes out of her body through the cloaca and out of the vent. The whole process takes around 24 to 26 hours and then the process starts again.